Frågor från kursen Flashcards
1
Q
What is vigilance?
A
Vigilance is a person’s ability to detect unobtrusive stimuli in a prolonged observation task. More formally: The ability to maintain attention and alertness. The reduction of vigilance over time is called the vigilance decrement, which may be caused by boredom, low frequency of stimuli, low amplitude of stimuli, etc.
2
Q
Describe the first of the six epochs of evolution:
A
Epoch 1: Physics and chemistry
Information in atomic structures
3
Q
Describe the second of the six epochs of evolution:
A
Epoch 2: Biology
Information about DNA
4
Q
Describe the third of the six epochs of evolution:
A
Epoch 3: Brains
Information in neural patterns
5
Q
Describe the fourth of the six epochs of evolution:
A
Epoch 4: Technology
Information in hardware and software designs
6
Q
Describe the fifth of the six epochs of evolution:
A
Epoch 5: Merge of technology and human intelligence
The methods of biology (including human intelligence) are integrated into the (exponentially expanding) human technology base
7
Q
Describe the sixth of the six epochs of evolution:
A
Epoch 6: The universe wakes up
Patterns of matter and energy in the universe becomes saturated with intelligent processes and knowledge
8
Q
Describe some main findings/breakthroughs in the industrial/technological revolution between 1750 - WW1:
A
- Powered machines (steam power, water wheels, combustion engine)
- Improved precision of parts
- Mining, iron-making technologies
- Canals, roads, railroads
- Production line, mass production
- electricity
9
Q
Describe Taylorism/Fordism
A
- Standardization
- Procedures
- High level of managerial control
- Time and motion study of human work
- Economic incentives (wage motive)
- Assembly line, division of labor
10
Q
Describe the procrustean approach
A
Approach of trying to adjust the human to the requirements of the task.
11
Q
Describe the evolution during 1940 - 1949:
A
- Many people were mobilized. Therefore selecting and training individuals became impractical and costly.
- Complex military systems; fast-moving aircraft
- It was no lnger possible to use the ‘procrustean’ approach of fitting the human to the machine by means of selection and training => should fit the machine to the human
12
Q
What are the three phases of human-machine research?
A
A. Knobs and dials
B. Borrowed engineering models
C. Human-computer interaction
13
Q
Knobs and dials: Describe the solutions called ‘Quickening’ and ‘Predicting’
A
- Quickening: Showing a weighted combination of position, velocity etc
- Predicting: A broader term than quickening. For example using simulations to show current and predict future state
14
Q
Describe shape-coding
A
Is when you make the appearance of the control more similar to its function.
15
Q
Mention the steps of the vigilance paradigm:
A
- Low salience
- Irregular
- No feedback
- Sustained
16
Q
Describe vigilance
A
Vigilance is the ability to sustain attention to a task for a period of time in order to detect and respond to infrequent and non-salient events.
17
Q
What is vigilance decrement?
A
The decline of detection performance over time
18
Q
When do the largest decrement of vigilance typically occur?
A
In the first 15 minutes of a watch
19
Q
Describe the arousal theory of vigilance
A
The sustained aspect of vigilance makes people under-aroused and perceptually insensitive
20
Q
Which substances increase/decrease arousal and perceptual sensitivity?
A
Increase:
- Caffeine
- Amphetamines
Decrease: Alcohol
21
Q
What is anthropometry?
A
The measurement of human individuals for the purpose of understanding human physical variation
22
Q
What is psychophysics?
A
The study of the relationship between a physical stimulus and the observers psychological experience in response to that stimulus.
23
Q
Mention three engineering/mathematical theories applied to the human
A
- Detection theory
- Information theory
- Control theory
24
Q
What is detection theory?
A
Is a means to quantify the way people discern between a signal and a noise. Can be used to calculate perceptual sensitivity and response bias from the hit rate and false alarm rate
25
What are the four possible outcomes in detection theory?
hit, miss, false alarm, correct rejection
26
Mention factors influencing reaction time
- Modality: auditory and touch faster than visual
- stimulus intensity
- stimulus response compatibility
- individual differences (ex. age)
- practice
- preparation time
- arousal
- complexity (number of bits)
27
What does Hick's law say?
That it is a linear relationship between reaction time and information (bits)
28
What does Fitt's law say?
That more time is needed for targets that are smaller and/or further away (speed-accuracy tradeoff)
29
Describe how computers dramatically influenced Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)
- display technology
- control technology (e.g. touch screens, speech recognition)
- automation (manual control => supervisory control)
- virtual reality
30
Describe automation
The mechanical or electronic replacement of human labor (physical and/or mental labor)
31
Fitt's list: Decribe which areas humans surpass machines in:
- Detect small amounts of visual or acoustic energy
- perceive patterns of light and sound
- exercise judgement
- reason inductively
- improve and use flexible procedures
- store very large amounts of information for long periods and to recall relevant facts
32
Fitt's list: Decribe which areas machines surpass humans in:
- Respond quickly to control signals and apply great force smoothly and precisely
- reason deductively, including computational ability
- perform repetitive, routine tasks
- handle highly complex operations, i.e. to do many different things at once.
- store information briefly, and then erase it completely
33
Mention 'obvious' advantages of automation
- Ability to function in hazardous conditions (low/high temperatures, low/high pressure, high radiation..)
- High-frequency movement and information processing
- low frequency movement and information processing
- Cost
34
Mention 'obvious' disadvantages of automation
- automation can be costly (initial cost, unpredictable development cost)
- it is not possible to fully automate complex tasks yet (e.g. car driving)
35
What is function allocation?
Deciding which functions (tasks, jobs) of a man-machine system that should be allocated to the human and which to the machine
36
Mention some factors that should also be considered, besides Fitt's list.
1. Technological progress => more automation
2. Practical design considerations
3. Pitfalls of automation
4. Not human VERSUS machine, but: stages of levels of automation
37
Describe the change from manual to supervisory control driven by automation
Earlier:
The human operator is continously controlling and observing the system
Nowadays:
One or more human operators are...
1. Setting initial conditions for,
2. Monitoring and intermittently adjusting, and
3. receiving information from
a computer that itself closes a loop (i.e. interconnects) through external sensors, effectors and the task environment.
38
Mention some cognition keywords when it comes to performance and behavior
- Planning/thinking
- Decision making/programming a computer
- Monitoring
- Intervening
- Remembering
- Mental states: mental workload, situation awareness, trust
39
What does vigilance tasks involve based on recent research?
- Focused mental effort
- Intensive information processing
- stress
- frustration
40
Give examples on how automation is used in aviation
1. Displays
- Electronic flight instrument system (EFIS)
2. Flight management system (FMS)
- Determining position
- Guiding along flight plan
- Advising on engine conditions, how to save fuel, vertical navigation etc
- Control display unit (CDU)
41
What are the occasional bursts of high mental workload for a pilot?
- Completing pre-landing checklist
- Monitoring descent speed and path
- Setting of flaps/slats
- Monitoring of autopilot modes and internal systems
- reprogramming of flight paths through control display unit (CDU)
- looking out of window
- radio communication/responding to air traffic control
- communicating with co-pilot
- dealing with unanticipated events (weather, technical failures)
42
What are the difficulties with automation in automated driving?
- Objects on the road
- Highway maintenance
- Adverse weather conditions
- Non-automated cars
43
Describe automation in road transport
Today, focus is on automation systems in single vehicles instead of automated highway systems
- Adaptive cruise control (ACC)
- Advanced emergency breaking (AEB)
- Automated parking
- Lane departure warning
- Forward collision warning
- Automotive navigation systems
44
What are the challenges with automation in road transport?
- Uptake of non-driving tasks, low situation awareness
- Low mental workload (with bursts of high mental workload)
- Behavioral adaption (i.e. driving with smaller safety margins)
- Disuse/false alarms
45
Describe automation in ships:
High degree of automation
- roll stabilization
- navigation systems
- computers for onboard communication and watch keeping
46
What are the challenges of automation in ships?
- Reduction in crew size leading to crew members being trained in multiple tasks
- Fatique, stress
- overreliance on automation
47
What is a teleoperator?
A system with artificial sensors and actuators that a human communicates with and controls over a system
48
What is a telerobot?
A machine that has the ability to perform automated work and is supervised by human(s) from a distance
49
What does process control refer to?
Process control refers to the control of a physical process that is continous in time and space.
50
What are the challenges with a typical control room?
- Hundreds of displays and alarms
| - How to provide the right information after a serious malfunction?
51
What are the six pitfalls of automation?
1. Lack of situation/mode awareness
2. Loss of manual control skills
3. Low/high mental workload
4. Behavioral adaption
5. Misuse of automation
6. Disuse of automation
52
Six pitfalls of automation: Describe pitfall 1: Lack of situation/mode awareness
Unsafe situations may occur because the operator:
- Does not understand what is going on and does not know what to do
- Is not aware of the automation mode
1. "The perception of the elements of the environment within a volume of time and space
2. the comprehension of their meaning, and
3. the projection of their status in the near future"
= Knowing what is going on so you can figure out what to do
53
Describe situation awareness global assesment technique (SAGAT):
At random movements during an experiment: Freeze the simulator and blank the displays.
Assess participants knowledge of what was happening at the time of the freeze.
Compare to objective data on what was actually happening
54
Describe mode error.
Human executes an intention in a way that is appropriate for one mode, when the device is actually in another mode
55
Six pitfalls of automation: Describe pitfall 2: Loss of manual control skills
The operator may become less proficient in manual control
56
Six pitfalls of automation: Describe pitfall 3: Low/High mental workload
- Unsafe situations may arise because the operator is suddenly overloaded (after a long period of low mental workload)
57
What is the main difference between a human and a computer in high task demands?
- A human experiences stress and increased mental workload. Degraded performance when task demands increase (i.e. graceful degradation)
- A computer experiences calamitous failure (brittle failure) <= instant!
58
Describe the term Workload.
Workload is a general term used to describe the cost of accomplishing task requirements for the human element of man-machine systems
59
What does the workload depend on?
- Imposed task, i.e. "task demands" (depends on number of subtasks to be completed, time limits etc..)
- Human capabilities and strategies
- Human perception (inferred task goals, performance feedback received etc...)
60
What is psychophysiology?
The branch of psychology that is concerned with the psychological bases of physical processes
61
Mention possible techniques for measuring mental workload
- Cardiovascular (e.g. Heart rate, heart rate variability)
- Brain activity
- Eye movement (e.g. variance of x/y coordinates)
- Pupil diameter
- Endocrine response
- Skin conductance
- Respiratory rate
- Blink rate/percentage eye closure
- Facial temperature
62
Six pitfalls of automation: Describe pitfall 4: Behavioral adaption
- Safety benefits of automation may not be realised because the operator adapts to the capabilities of automation
- Examples: increased risk taking, reduced safety margins
63
Six pitfalls of automation: Describe pitfall 5: Misuse of automation
- Unsafe situations may occur because the operator is over-relying on the automation, characterized by complacency and high trust in automation.
64
What are contributing factors to misuse of automation?
1. Automation bias
2. Multi-tasking and high mental workload
3. High automation reliability
4. Poor displays: automation's states/modes unclear to human
5. Lack of skills or self-confidence => rely on automation => even worse skills and self-confidence
65
Six pitfalls of automation: Describe pitfall 6: Disuse of automation
- Causes: False alarm/irrelevant advice from a decision aid
| - Operator's general attitude towards automation
66
What is the catch 22 about supervisory control?
The human supervisor needs experience about emergency situations, but his task is to avoid emergencies = The human supervisor is "trapped"
ex, key locked inside car: To open car, need keys. To have keys, need to open car.
67
Describe the Roseborough dilemma:
1. Why do we need the human supervisor in complex control systems?
2. Answer: To complement the machine for functions that are not modelable (such as emergencies/unexpected events)
3. Human supervisors sometimes make mistakes; therefore they might need a decision aid
4. However, the decision aid needs a model!
5. (and if such a model would be available, then why not automate the decision implementation?)
68
What is the common way of reasoning when it comes to Bainbridge's ironies of automation?
Human operator is slow, unreliable and inefficient. Therefore the human operator should be eliminated from the system by means of operator.
69
Describe Bainbridge's ironies of automation
- Irony 1: Designer errors can be a major source of operating problems (operator errors become design errors)
- Irony 2: Human supervisor is left to do difficult tasks which the designer cannot think how to automate
- Irony 3: When manual take-over is needed there is likely to be something wrong, and the operator needs to be highly skilled (while actually deskilling has occured)
- Irony 4: The human supervisor has lack of feedback and experience about unusual situations (catch 22)
- Irony 5: "After three decades of highly prolific research on human vigilance, we are still making the same seemingly contradictory statement: a human being is a poor monitor, but that is what he or she ought to be doing"
- Irony 6: Computer is introduced because of speed, accuracy, and the ability to handle many complex operations. The human has been given an impossible task because he cannot monitor all computer's decisions in real time
- Irony 7: The job of automation supervisor is one of the worst types. It is boring but responsible, and there is no opportunity to acquire or maintain the qualities required to handle the responsibility.
70
What are the four stages of automation?
1. Sensory processing => information acquisition
2. Perception/working memory => information analysis
3. Decision making => Decision and action selection
4. Response execution => Action implementation
71
Four stages of automation:
| What steps are involved in stage 1: Information aquisition?
```
Low level:
- Register
- Scan
- Observe
Medium level:
- Highlight
- Lock-on target
- Organize
- Warn
High level:
- Select
- Filter
```
72
Four stages of automation:
| What steps are involved in stage 2: Information analysis?
```
Low-level:
- Extrapolate
- Predict
- Show trends
Medium level:
- Integrate
- Combine
- Augment
High level:
- Manage
- Summarize
- Diagnose
```
73
Four stages of automation:
| What steps are involved in stage 3: Decision and action selection?
Low level to high level (the computer...):
1. Offers no assistance
2. Suggests alternative ways
3. Selects one way to do the task...
4. ...And executes the task if human approves
5. ...And restricted time veto before automatic execution
6. ...Executes automatically then informs the human
7. ...Executes automatically then informs the human if asked
8. Selects the method, executes the task, and ignores the human
74
What does the 'All-or-none fallacy' mean?
Even highly automated systems, such as electric power networks need humans for supervision, adjustment, maintenance, expansion and improvement. Therefore one can draw the paradoxical conclusion that automated systems still are man-machine systems, for which both technical and human factors are important
75
Four stages of automation:
| What steps are involved in stage 4: Action implementation?
Low level:
- Human executes task by means of hand/voice
High level:
- Machine executes task
76
What factors can jeopardize automation reliability?
- Imprecise sensors / noisy data
- Inappropriate algorithms for variations in operating conditions (e.g. autopilot in storm)
- Hardware malfunction
77
A higher level of automation is justified when...
- The risk (cost multiplied by probability of automation failure) is low
- The situation is time-critical (that is, no reliable response can be expected from the human)
78
Mention some design considerations in automated systems:
1. Use knobs & dials principles (stimulus response, compability, redundancy, shape coding etc)
2. Present salient feedback/warning about automation (status, actions, failures, intentions)
3. Take into account mental workload; especially regarding emergency situations
4. Remember that false alarms cause disuse. Carefully consider the decision threshold
5. Use simulator-based training (to mitigate: catch 22 of supervisory control, deskilling, miscalibrated trust)
6. Minimize cognitive overhead: automation should be easy to turn on and off
7. Beware of the all-or-none fallacy. Instead, think in terms of levels and stages of automation
8. Decision aids may be inappropriate for direct transducing of instructions (Roseborough dilemma)
9. Consider presenting meta-information (plant health indicators, likelihood alarms, configural displays, semantic mapping)
79
Vibrotactile displays: What does stimulus mean?
A change in the environment. ex: warning lights turn on
80
Vibrotactile displays: What does sensation mean?
Detection of the stimulus. ex: light receptors in your eyes send neural signals to the brain
81
Vibrotactile displays: what does perception mean?
Integration of the meaning of the stimulus. ex: Human sees a "check oil symbol"
82
How is haptic stimuli perceived?
Haptic stimuli is perceived by "actively palpating (känna) an object or surface"
83
How is tactile stimuli perceived?
Tactile stimuli "are delivered passively to the skin surface" (ex. vibration of your mobile phone)
84
Tactile receptors in the skin: Mention receptor types
1. Free nerve endings
2. Tactile Merkel discs
3. Hair follicle receptors
4. Encapsulated nerve endings
increased nerve density => increased tactile sensitivity
85
Tactile receptors in the skin: What is a receptor field?
The area that the receptor monitors
86
Tactile receptors in the skin: What does adaption imply?
Adaption is a change in sensitivity (nerve pulse generation) in the presence of a constant stimulus)
87
Psychophysics: What are the four dimensions of coding?
1. Frequency
2. Amplitude
3. Location
4. Timing
88
Psychophysics, four dimensions of coding: Describe 1. Frequency
- Sensitive from 0.4 - 1000 Hz
- Most sensitive between 250 Hz - 300 Hz
- Can distinguish 9 levels at most
89
Psychophysics, four dimensions of coding: Describe 2. Amplitude
- Sensitivity dependent on frequency
- 0.6 - 0.8 mm generally ewoke pain
- Different per person and time
- Women more sensitive than men
90
Psychophysics, four dimensions of coding: Describe 3. Location
- Most sensitive in hands and lips
- At least 4 cm discrimination between locations, decreases as innervation increases
- Spatial effects, like apparent location or spatial masking
91
Psychophysics, four dimensions of coding: Describe 4. Timing
- Able to detect (inter)pulses of 10 ms (preffered 50 and 200 ms)
- Sense of urgency linked to inter-pulse interval
- Temporal effects, like temporal masking
92
According to BASt, what are the five levels of automated driving?
1. Manual driving
2. Driver assistance
3. Partially automated driving
4. Highly automated driving (HAD) (Driver can be requested to take over control by a take-over request (TOR)
5. Fully automated driving (FAD)
93
Five levels of automated driving: How can vibrotactile feedback assist during stage 1, Manual driving?
Supplementary to traditional warnings:
- Driver probably engaged in visually/auditory tasks
- Vibrotactile stimuli are hard to ignore
- Take over requests may require multimodal feedback
94
Five levels of automated driving: How can vibrotactile feedback assist during stage 2, Driver assistance
Attention direction:
- Humans recognize location and temporal pattern better than amplitude and frequency
- The location of vibration mapped to direction of danger
95
Five levels of automated driving: How can vibrotactile feedback assist during stage 3, partially automated driving
Convey traffic information:
- Can vibrotactile feedback be effectively used to present complex information?
- Can vibrotactile feedback be used to convey information to the driver about surrounding traffic?
96
What is wrong with highly automated driving?
- Hands-free driving, but not mind-free driving
- How to make the automation understand your preferences and abilities?
- How to allow the driver to understand automation boundaries and limitations, and react on time?
97
It is possible to reduce error through appropriate design considerations. Appropriate design should...
- Assume the existence of error
- continually provide feedback
- continually interract with operators in an effective manner
- allow for the worst of situations
98
Describe haptic shared control:
- Continous sharing of control authority through forces (no more binary switches (on/off), but smooth shifting)
- Driver is better aware of changing, criticality of situation, as well as of the functionality and intent of the system
- Drivers can always overrule the system
- Can be based on any automation system that generates optimal steering inputs (visual controller)
- Allows driver to use fast reflexes and neuromuscular adaption (low-level neuromuscular controller)
99
What are the advantages of shared control?
- The principle of 'redundancy gain'
| - The principle of 'minimal information access costs'
100
Describe the Roseborough dilemman in two sentences
If the machine aid is correct, then why not automate? Why have a human in the loop?
101
What is the probabilistic risk assesment (PRA)?
A quantitive method for evaluating risks of a complex system
| Used for low-probability and high-consequence events
102
Where are Probabilistic Risk Assesment (PRA) typically used?
- Nuclear power industry
- Aerospace
- Space missions
- oil industry
- rail industry
- military
- food industry
- water management
- medical field
103
What are the advantages of Probabilistic Risk Assesment (PRA)?
- Structured approach facilitates communication about... 1. risk management and cost-benefit analyses
2. identifying the dominant accident scenarios
3. failure modes and interactions between technology/operators
- Integrates engineering and psychological/behavioral sciences
- Facilitates 'an additional tool in safety analysis that improves safety-related decision making'
104
What are the limitations and concerns with Probabilistic Risk Assesment (PRA)
- Choice of system boundaries (temporal, external, internal)
- Human error probability is difficult to define
- - validity of databases, simulations, expert-judgement methods
- - innovative thinking and irrational behaviors
- - individual differences
- - effects of display
- - safety culture/organizational & managerial factors (remote factors)
- - performance shaping factors (e.g. stress)
- - modeling of 'common causes' or 'dependent failures' is difficult
105
Describe human error from a proximal to remote view
1. Person perspective (person-makes-error, very 'proximal')
2. HMI/knobs & dials perspective
3. Cognitive perspective
4. Cultural perspective
5. Holistic perspective (human error as a symptom; very 'remote')
106
Describe a few different definitions of human error
- A deviation from accuracy/correctness/target
- Action that fails to meet some implicit or explicit standard
- a human action that exceeds some limit of acceptability
- an out-of-tolerance action
- unwanted variability
107
What are the ambiguities with the traditional definition of human error?
1. How large should a deviation be to be called an error?
2. Is a shortcut an error?
3. What if (un)wanted outcome occurs much later in time following the interjection of many other actions (and other people)?
108
Human error: describe the proximal view:
The worker causes the accidents (and we should train/blame/shame him)
109
Human error: describe the remote view:
The worker works in poor circumstances (and we should improve these circumstances)
110
What are proximal factors in human error?
- Persons in workspace
- individual responsibility
- "sharp end"
- short history
- downstream factors
- active errors
- frequent
- hard to anticipate
- human error causes accidents
111
What are remote factors in human error?
- system, organization, regulators, society
- collective responsibility
- "blunt end"
- long history
- upstream factors
- latent errors (conditions)
- rare
- relatively easy to anticipate
- human errors are consequences
112
Human perspective: what are the consequences of stress?
1. Psychological experience (e.g. frustration)
2. Long-term consequences for health
3. Change in physiology (e.g. increased heart rate, adrenaline, etc)
4. Performance deteriorated/reduced efficiency of information processing
113
What is the definition of error from a HMI perspective?
Error is the result of a mismatch between task demands and human mental and physical capabilities
114
What is the proximity compatibility principle?
If a task requires high mental processing proximity, there should be a high display proximity.
115
What is the definition of error from a cognitive perspective?
All those occasions in which a planned sequence of mental or physical activities fails to achieve its desired goal without the intervention of some chance agency
116
What is the definition of error from a cultural perspective?
Experts agree that safety culture is of high relevance for overall safety within an organization (perhaps even the number one priority)
117
What is safety culture?
- "The attitudes, beliefs, perceptions and values that employees share in relation to safety"
- It is a construct, an abstract concept (but can be operationalized by means of questionnaires amongst employees, observations, interviews, audits)
- It is stable (changes over multiple years, not on a day-to-day basis)
- It is shared by many people in the organization
- It is revealed in practices on the workfloor
118
What does hindsight bias mean?
- The inclination to see events that have already occured as being more predictable than they were before they took place
- A cognitive distortion caused by feedback and reconstruction of memory
119
What are the "advantages" with a proximal view on human error?
- Close to actual casual triggers of accidents
| - Administrative & legal convenience (scapegoat)
120
What are the disadvantages with a proximal view on human error?
- Isolates unsafe acts from context and safety culture
- Neglects recurrent error patterns (same type of errors may keep occurring, regardless of who carries out the task)
- Blaming is often inappropriate (hindsight bias, fundamental attribution error)
121
What are the disadvantages with a remote view on human error?
- (dangerous) downplay of human fallibility (felbarhet) and individual responsibility
- Remote factors have little causal specificity; conditions are not causes
122
Simulation involving humans: What is live simulation?
Real people operate real systems
123
Simulation involving humans: What is virtual simulation?
Real people operate simulated systems
124
Simulation involving humans: What is constructive simulation?
simulated people operate simulated systems
125
Describe human sensation
- Distal object stimulates sensory organs by means of energy (e.g. light, sound, warmth)
- sensory organs transduce the stimuli into neural activity (neural impulses), which is sent to the brain
- Low-level biochemical/neurological events
126
Describe perception
- Attaining awareness or understanding of what is sensed
127
Which questions does Perception deal with?
- Where is the stimuli?
- What is it? What category does it belong to?
- What is it doing?
- What can I do with it? What can it do to me?
- What's going on?
128
Which questions does human sensation deal with?
- Is there something?
| - How intense is it?
129
What is the Rubin vase an exampel of?
Ambigous image (optical illusion):
- The same stimulus is presented, but the viewer makes a mental choice of two interpretations, each of which is valid (ex. vase or two faces)
- The retinal image (i.e. the stimulus/sensation) does not change
- Mental representation (i.e. the percept) does change
130
What is physical fidelity?
Objective degree of similarity between the simulator and reality. measured using sensors/instruments (no human in the loop)
131
Give some examples of high physical fidelity
- Flight simulator cockpit that geometrically corresponds to a real cockpit
- Visual image that corresponds to reality in terms of luminance and contrast
- Simulator time delays that match time delays of real system
132
What is impossible to achieve with physical fidelity
- Sustained linear acceleration
| - High luminance (e.g. blinding of the sun)
133
Describe a simulator with low fidelity
- Description: Simulator that fits on desk
- Field of view: < 120 degrees: monitors or single screen
- Motion base: No
- Haptic feedback: No
- Auditory feedback: low-cost speakers
- Vehicle dynamics: Simple model, or game-based software
- Cost: < 5000 $
134
Describe a simulator with medium fidelity
- Description: Simulator that fits in lab room
- Field of view: 120 - 180 degrees
- Motion base: No, or a small amplitude motion system
- Haptic feedback: vibrations/active feedback on steering wheel
- Auditory feedback: multiple speakers and subwoofer
- Vehicle dynamics: semi-realistic and customizable for training/research purposes
- Cost: 5000 - 150 000 $
135
Describe a simulator with high fidelity:
- Description: Simulator that requires special housing and infrastructure
- Field of view: > 180 degrees
- Motion base: Typically >= 6 DOF
- Haptic feedback: Vibration/active feedback on all control interfaces
- Auditory feedback: Surround sound, usually validated with respect to real vehicle
- Vehicle dynamics: Usually validated professional package and in-house developed
- Cost: 150 000 - 30 000 000 $
136
What is behavioral fidelity?
Match between operator's control behavior in the simulator and the real vehicle
137
When is absolute behavioral fidelity achieved?
When numeric values correspond between the simulator and the vehicle
138
When is relative behavioral fidelity achieved?
When an 'effect size' corresponds between the simulator and the real vehicle
139
What is vection?
Illusion of self-motion induced visually
140
What is sensory threshold?
Smallest level of stimulus energy which is detectable
141
What is indifference threshold?
Smallest level of stimulus energy which is noticed or used by the operator during a control task
142
What is sensory adaption?
Reduction over time in the responsiveness of a sensory system to a constant stimulus
143
What is the function of the visual system?
- It provides information about position/location, attitude, and velocity
- Visual system can provide a continuous percept of vection (even when speed is constant)
- Peripheral channels are sensitive to motion
144
What are the three systems for motion perception?
- Visual system
- Vestibular system
- Haptic system
145
What parts of the visual system are used for motion perception and analysis?
- Photo receptors
146
What parts of the vestibular system are used for motion perception and analysis?
- Otolith
| - Semicircular canals
147
What parts of the haptic system are used for motion perception and analysis?
- Muscle receptors
- Pressure receptors
- Joint receptors
148
What are the physical limitations of motion system?
- Complete physical fidelity can not be realized
- "It is evident that it is hopeless to attempt to provide realistic force and motion stimuli in the sense that the acceleration forces, produced by the aircraft, can be replicated in the simulator"
149
What is motion/simulator sickness?
- Occurs when there is a disagreement among visual and vestibular stimuli
- Diverse set of symptoms (e.g. dizziness, fatique, nausea)
- Only individuals with intact and normally functioning vestibular systems are susceptible to motion/simulator sickness
150
What causes motion/simulator sickness?
Motion felt but not seen:
- Sea (boats, ferries, rafts)
- Land (cars (when lookin at interior), camels, fun fair rides)
- Air (planes, hovercraft, helicopters)
Motion seen but not felt (or not felt correctly):
- Wide-screen cinemas
- Virtual simulation (simulator sickness)
- Space (space sickness)
151
What is sensory conflict theory?
Motion signals are "at variance not only with one another, but also - and this is the crucial factor - with what is expected on the basis of past experience"
Match: comfortable, no symptoms
Mismatch: not comfortable, motion sickness, disturbance of spatial orientation
152
What factors increase/decrease motion/simulator sickness?
- The probability of simulator sickness increases if the task is more familiar (i.e. more expectations to be violated)
- Simulator sickness increases with time on task in the same session
- Simulator sickness decreases with exposure across independent sessions
153
What are the three innate responses shaped by evolution?
1. Reflex
2. Taxis
3. Instinct
154
Innate responses shaped by evolution: describe reflex:
- Involuntary and almost instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus
- Involves a single set of muscles
155
Innate responses shaped by evolution: describe taxis:
- Response to a directional stimulus (e.g. light) that involves the entire body
- Organism moves towards (positive taxis) or away form (negative taxis) the stimulus
156
Innate responses shaped by evolution: describe insticnt
- Fixed action pattern
- Behavioral sequence that is indivisible and runs to completion
- Triggered by environmental events
157
What are the problems with our innate responses?
- Cannot respond to a new type of stimulus
| - Cannot acquire a new type of response
158
What are the steps of classical conditioning?
1. Association among stimuli (bell is associated with [the concept of] food)
2. Involuntary behavior
3. Few conditionable behaviors possible (because there are not many different reflexes)
4. Deals with the acquisition of emotional responses to events (fears, evasions, joys, preferences)
159
What are the steps of operant conditioning?
1. Association between behavior and outcome (pedal pressing is associated with getting out of a box)
2. Voluntary behavior
3. Many conditionable behaviors possible
4. Deals with the acquisition of adaptive behaviors (habits: behaviors under incentive)
160
What is the modern "cognitive" definition of learning?
Learning is a relatively permanent change in knowledge that occurs as a result of experience (excluding the effects of drugs, injury and biological maturation)
161
What does the 'knowledge of prediction' mean?
- Predict the outcome of an event (classical conditioning; bell => food)
162
What does the 'knowledge of control' mean?
- Control the outcome of behavior (operant conditioning; pedal => escape)
163
What is the older "behaviorists" definition of learning?
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience
164
What does the phrase "steep learning curve" mean?
Formal (positive) meaning:
- high slope of learning curve
Informal (negative) meaning:
- a lot of training is needed to reach acceptable performance
165
What do you mean when you talk about transfer of training?
Learn how to apply specific skills from simulation in the real context
166
What does the guidance hypothesis mean?
"Feedback that is relatively more guiding would be expected to have greater detrimental (skadlig) effects on motor learning"
167
What does intrinsic feedback mean?
information (visual, vestibular, haptic) that is naturally available when performing a task; it is inherent (naturlig) to the action being performed
168
What does augmented feedback mean?
Extrinsic feedback provided to the learner. It supplements the information that is naturally available.
169
What are the possible explanations to the guidance hypothesis?
1. Learner becomes dependent on the augmented feedback
2. Augmented feedback is distracting from the intrinsic feedback
3. Augmented feedback stimulates movement-to-movement steering corrections. These corrections are repeated in retention trials (maladaptive corrections)
4. Task becomes too easy with augmented feedback; learner is insufficiently challenged. Too low arousal.
170
What is the Oldowan technology?
The oldest stone tool technology
171
What is lithic analysis?
The analysis of stone tools and other chipped stone artefacts using basic scientific techniques
172
What is lithic reduction?
Creating a tool by scaling of small pieces one by one (think hammering of pieces of a flint stone)
173
What is experimental archaeology?
Testing of a hypothesis by trying to reproduce the tools
174
What does the out-of-africa-theory concern?
Modern humans evolved in Africa, migrated 50 000 - 100 000 years ago and replaced Homo Neanderthalensis (and most likely interbreeding with them)
175
What does encephalization mean?
The evolution has moved towards a larger brain size through evolutionary time.
In evolution; exponential growth of both brain size and body weight.
Biological evolution is closely linked to technological innovation.
Increased brain size, population size and geographic range
176
What is cortical homunculus?
The representation of the anatomical division of the primary somatosensory cortex and the primary motor cortex (brain parts linked to body parts)
177
What parts does the somatosensory cortex handle?
- Receptive area
| - Sense of touch
178
What parts does the motor cortex handle?
- Neural impulse generation
| - control and execute movement
179
What is Taylorism?
- Production efficiency methodology that breaks every action, job, or task into small and simple segments which can be easily analysed and taught
- Ex: Studying size and weight of coal shovels to find the best option for the optimal shovelling rate
180
What is Fordism?
- A notion of a modern economic and social system based on an industrialised and standardised form of mass production
- Mass production: low cost, high wages - strict rules: high pay for hard work
- Productivity raised by proceduralization, standardization, training, worker selection and economic incentives
- Introduced the assembly line - moving car past workers instead of workers moving around
181
What is the meaning of the Procrustean approach?
Trying to adjust the human to the requirements of the task: forcing human to adapt to the technology by means of training (putting in effort) and selecting the right person for the right job
182
What does engineering psychology concern?
Uncover laws of behavior that are relevant to the design of systems. Specify capacities and limitations of the human.
183
What does physical ergonomics concern?
Designing the equipment and workplace to fit the human body (postures, physical work, lifting, repetitive movements, reaching, fatique)
184
What does Anthropometry mean?
The measurement of human individuals for the purpose of understanding human physical variation (differences between populations: men/women, age groups, ethnicity)
185
What is Psychophysics?
The relationship between physical stimuli and the human's behavior or experience in psychophysical tasks where the observer are asked to detect, discriminate, rate or recognize stimuli. Measure the effect on perception of varying the physical qualities of the input
186
Describe Detection theory
A means to quantify the way people make decisions under conditions of uncertainty (linked to vigilance tasks, vigilance decrement etc)
187
Describe hit rate
Number of hits/total number of stimuli
188
Describe false alarm rate
number of false alarms/total number of stimuli
189
Describe bias
The observer has a tendency to a certain action
190
Describe perceptual sensitivity
How well the observer can make distinction between signal and noise trials
191
What does a manual control model mean?
Man receiving information (machine displays), processing information and reaching a decision, executing decision through control
192
What is manual control?
Study of negative feedback control systems in which the loop is closed through a human operator
193
How do you prevent loss of vigilance?
- Increase signal salience (reduces perceptual load)
- Use simultaneous tasks rather than comparative discrimination (reduces memory load)
- Lower event rate
- Higher signal rate (introduce false signals now and then)
194
What does Arousal mean?
Psychological/physiological state of being awake and reactive.
195
What causes Vigilance Decrement?
Vigilance decrement is due to a decrease in psychological arousal (boring task, repetitive, subject get habituated to the task, understimulating nature of vigilance task, suppressing brain activity)
196
Describe Keyhole problem with automation
The location cue is lost: Operator does not remember how to access the needed information (using menus, codes, etc)
197
Describe manual control (direct control) in automation
Human operator is continuously controlling and observing a system
198
Describe supervisory control (strict meaning):
Human operators are
1. setting initial conditions for
2. monitoring and intermittently adjusting, and
3. receiving information from, a computer that itself closes a loop through external sensors, effectors and the task environment (mars rover (delay), control room)
199
Describe supervisory control (liberal meaning)
Interaction with a computer to transform data or to transform operator commands to generate detailed control actions (washing machine, microwave oven control)
200
Describe fully automatic control:
Human only perceives but cannot intervene (maybe only pulling a plug)
201
Describe cognitive ergonomics
Study of cognitive work and the application of this knowledge to the design and development of technology (keywords: thinking, decision-making, remembering, mental states, etc.) The operator needs to have a mental model of the system, in supervisory control
202
Describe the cognitive control models:
Knowledge-based-control:
- consious
- novel problems (human reaction to unfamiliar situation)
Rule-based control:
- mixed
- trained for problems (rules can be reported
Skill-based control:
- automatic
- routine tasks (without conscious control)
203
Describe neuro-ergonomics
Application of neuroscience to ergonomics; study of human brain in relation to performance at work and other everyday settings
204
Why is Fitts list not as useful and practical anymore?
Computers became faster/more intelligent, going towards stages and levels of automation rather than human vs. machine and design considerations play a role. Automation advances gradually with technological progress
205
How does automation in aviation affect the role of the pilot?
Aviation is highly automated, both display technology and flight management systems are largely introduced; pilots are increasingly peripheral to systems (remote from their vehicle)
206
Describe the term Glass Cockpit
Instruments and display technology in aviation-control (highly automated flight)
207
What are a modern pilot's tasks?
- Button pushing
- Flight managing
- Mental models (physics of aircraft, if-then logic)
- Occasional bursts of high mental workload (pre-landing checklist, monitoring descent speed and path, etc)
208
How has the accident rate in aviation changed over time?
Accident rate has decreased over time.
| Technical failure has become more rare, human-error is still the most important cause of accidents
209
What effects do space have in the use of teleoperation?
In space there are effects of time delay in continuous teleoperation: dramatically increases the time to complete a teleoperation task
210
Describe error of omission
Missing events, missing taking apprpriate action when not explicitly prompted by the automation aid, despite non-automated indications of problems
211
Describe error of commision
Doing what an automation aid recommends, even when it contradicts training and other available valid indicators (obedience while not seeking (dis)confirmatory information)
212
Describe Abuse of automation
The automation of functions by designers and implementation by managers without the regard of the consequences for human (and system) performance and the operator's authority over the system (abuse by designers/managers)
213
Describe Fixes to fixes
Trying to improve safety by adding more automation without carrying out appropriate human-machine systems research
214
Describe the relationship between workload and stress in highly automated control
- 99% boredom, 1% terror
- Refers to mental workload and stress: 99% boredom of continuous normal operation, 1% panic in cases entirely different from normal or slightly disturbed situations (e.g. alarm flooding)
- "By taking away the easy parts of his task, automation can make the difficult parts of the human operator's task more difficult"
215
Describe Alarm flood
Multiple alarms going off at once
216
Describe Killing with kindness
Refers to that operators of highly automated systems are assisted in routine situations, but may become overwhelmed in demanding circumstances (due to many control modes, advisory systems, display options)
217
Describe display clutter
Interference of information on a display when too much information is present at once
218
"Automation can starve cognition", describe how:
Refers to problem when computers assume control, operators cannot tell what is happening and cannot keep their mental models of the system updated (lose interest, let machine control); in emergency find that they do not have the knowledge to intervene intelligently
219
Describe clumsy automation:
Automation systems that are difficult to use and understand, resulting in an increased mental workload of the operator or an unbalanced pattern of workload over time (minimum task demand requires maximum user capacity)
220
Describe automation bias
Misuse of automation (overreliance); automation biases decision making
221
Describe cognitive overhead
Mental workload associated with the decision to make use of automation. Automation is most useful in intermediate complexity
222
Describe glass cockpit as a general term:
Electromechanical display devices are replaced by computer-generated images. Introduces the heyhole problem; displays configurable or not?
223
Describe mode error
When an intention is executed in a way appropriate for one automation mode when, in fact, the system is in a different mode (lack of salient feedback)
224
Describe Graceful degradation
When humans become overloaded, there is a smooth degradation on task performance rather than a calamitous failure.
225
Describe Left-over function allocation
Automate everything that can be automated; people are left with the functions that could not be automated due to technical processes, but human operators are the moste unreliable element
226
Describe Chernoff face
Means to represent multivariate data in the shape of a human face
227
Describe The last frontier regarding human errors
Human error is the last accident-cause to be solved.
228
Describe cognitive epidemiology
Research that examines the association between intelligence test scores (IQ) and health, more specifically morbidity (mental and hysical) and mortality.
229
Describe Crytallized intelligence
Ability to use skills, knowledge and experience (vocabulary, world affair knowledge) - increased with age.
230
Describe Fluid intelligence
Capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations
231
Describe Perceptual narrowing
- Tunnel vision, cognitive lockup
- Tendency to limit physical or mental attention and action to what is most immediate and familiar, being unable to avail oneself a broader set of options
232
Describe a Violation
Deliverate deviation from standard procedure (either sabotage or no harm intended)
233
Describe Lines of causality
Lines of decisions all seem to work towards one (bad) outcome, however not intended
234
Describe Swiss cheese model
Holes in defences (active failures and latent conditions) and hazards are basic ingredients to any accident/disaster - come together at once, together causing the accident
235
Describe a Fault tree
A deductive method to assess risk; postulate (grundprincip) that the system has failed and attempt to find out what modes of component behaviour causes this failure
236
Describe an Event tree
An inductive, bottom-up method to assess risk; initiate an event and determine how this event can propagate in chronological order (towards undesired outcome)
237
Describe Haptic shared control
Combining the best of human and machine; a 'soft, compliant technology'.
Imagine vehicles or tools...
- that are aware of their environment
- that have a good idea of what you want
- that help to comfortable achieve better performance of safety
- that communicate their intentions
- that can be easily overruled
238
Describe how Haptic shared control is a unified approach:
- continous sharing of control authority (through forces, smooth shifting)
- driver is better aware of changing criticality of situation (and functionality/intention of the system)
- driver can always overrule the system
- can be based on any automation system that generates 'optimal steering inputs'
- allows driver to use fast reflexes and neuromuscular adaption
239
Describe the Horse metaphor
Human is the driver, in charge, but if the human fails to see that a certain action can be completed or is unsafe, the horse itself can take over in control to not fulfil that action
240
Name advantages of simulation vs real situation
- Cost reduction
- Practicing without physical risk (and learn from errors and mistakes)
- Simulation of elements that are impossible or unsafe in reality (new road type, driving with alcohol)
- Controllability and repeatability (elimination of variables such as weather)
- Augmented feedback
- Easy data collection
241
Name some disadvantages of simulation
- Limited simulator fidelity
| - Simulator sickness
242
What is Moore's law?
Historic trend in computer hardware - number of transistors per volume/area doubles every two years.
Human's common sense intuition is to make linear expectations when making forecasts, where in reality growth of computing is exponential
243
Describe Technological singularity
Technological development is taken over by machines, who can think, act and communicate so quickly that normal humans cannot even comprehend what is going on
244
What is the simulation hypothesis/argument?
"Reality is a simulation, those affected are generally unaware of this". Humans are the entities in a constructive simulation.
245
Describe physical fidelity
Match between recordings of variables of simulator and corresponding measurement in the real situation (1:1 replica of vehicle, luminance/contrast of image) - objective fidelity
246
Describe perceptual fidelity
Match between operator's subjective perception of the simulator and reality (immersive environment, convincing situation) - physiological fidelity (measured through questionnaire)
247
Describe Behavioural fidelity
Match between operator's control behaviour in the simulator and reality (number of steering corrections)
248
Describe the characteristics of the Visual system
- Provides information about position, attitude and velocity
- Can provide a continuous percept of vection
- Peripheral channels are most sensitive
- Slow response time
249
Describe the characteristics of the Vestibular system
- Located in inner ears
- Important for keeping balance, stabilizing eye-movement during head movement, spatial orientation and motion perception
- Three semicircular canals (acceleration, angular motion)
- Otolith organ/utricle (head tilting)
250
Describe the characteristics of the Haptic system
- mechanoreceptors (tactual system)
- Respond to pressure
- Very quick response time
251
Name the 6 degrees of freedom in a simulation
```
Translation
- Surge (strömma, bölja)
- Sway (svängning)
- Heave (hävning, svallning)
Rotation
- Roll
- Pitch (tippning, lutning)
- Yaw (girning)
```
252
Describe Onset cueing
Only the initial accelerations are modelled in accordance with reality (motion cueing (konservering) technique to improve physical fidelity in (limited) simulator)
253
What is cue temporal mismatch?
- Delay
| - Mismatch between visual and motion information, contributes to discomfort
254
Describe Sensory conflict theory
Sickness occurs due to mismatches between what the sensorysystems expect based on previous experience and what actually occurs in the simulator
255
Describe instability theory
Sickness occurs when an individual is attempting to maintain stability under a set of environmental conditions when they have not yet learned strategies for accomplishing the task
256
What is cognitive science?
Interdisciplinary scientific study of mind and its processes
257
Describe Long-term memory
- Stores knowledge acquired through learning and perception
- Huge capacity
- Little decay (memory can last for days/decades)
- Memories are maintained by relatively stable and permanent neural connections widely spread throughout the brain
258
Describe short-term memory
- Small capacity (7 'chunks' of information, 1 long sentence')
- Large decay (memory lasts about 20 seconds)
- Working memory capacity is correlated with inteligence
259
Describe a True transfer experiment
Assessing the effectiveness of a simulator by an experiment with two groups. 1 specifically trained group and 1 control group (without specific training): after training their performance is compared in the real situation (vehicle)
260
Describe a Quasi transfer-different experiment
Similar to true transfer but the transfer session is conducted in the simulator as well (as a stand-in for the real situation), but both training groups will perceive a (small) difference from the training situation
261
Describe a Quasi transfer-identical experiment
Now the training situation is similar to the transfer situation for one of the groups
262
Describe how one can be learning from errors
Errors are motivation for improvement; they clarify the limits of tolerable behaviour and prevent overconfidence
263
What is the Eye-mind hypothesis
The area of visual attention is the area of cognitive attention
264
Describe a fixation
A short stop in eye-movement; brain is processing the fixated information
265
Describe a saccade
Fast eye-movement (fastest in human body, 1000deg/s), no information processing
266
Describe Foveal area
centre of visual attention, high visual acuity, range of 2 degrees
267
Describe Peripheral area
Visual area except the fovea; used in motion perception (attention attraction)
268
What does the Ruber hand illusion imply?
Body swap illusion: It is 'remarkably' easy to move a human centre of awareness from one body to another
269
What is a definition of engineering?
The "science, skill, and profession of acquiring and applying scientific, economic, social and practical knowledge, in order to design and also build structures, machines, devices, systems, materials and processes"
270
What does a humans 'self-pace' refer to?
Speeding up when easy, slowing down when harder
271
What does it mean that humans are 'multivariate'?
Many ways to communicate, reason, etc.
272
Describe Oldowan tools
- 2,5 - 1,5 million years ago
- Oldest recognizable tools
- It had an adaptive threshold => needed energy for larger brain
273
When did humans first learn to use fire?
1 - 1.5 million years ago
274
When did the 'out of Africa' happen?
ca 60 000 years ago
275
Which happened first; encephalization or bipedalism?
Bipedalism
276
What is the 'Procrustean approach'?
Fitting people to a task by training and selection
277
What is Scientific Management?
- Analyse tasks and select worker by best possible match between task requirements and capabilities
- sees the human as a component in the work process
- Different tests for different capabilities
- High correlation is fit for the job
278
When and why did the Procrustean approach fall?
- During WW2.
- Too many soldiers to train
- Fast technological development and complex new machines (radar, sonar)
- instead had to adapt the systems to the human
279
What does the demand-capacity gap mean?
Human capabilities remain unchanged over a century while technology increases constantly
280
Define Ergonomics
- The science of designing the equipment and workplace to fit the human body
- With regards to posture, physical work, lifting, repetitive movement, reaching, fatique
281
Define psychophysics
The study of the relationship between a physical stimulus and the observer's psychological experience in response to that stimulus
282
Mention some of the theoretical concepts in Borrowed engineering models
- Signal detection
- Information theory
- Feedback control theory
283
How does the signal rate affect vigilance performance?
Vigilance performance is better when signal rate is higher and event rate is lower (signals and non-signals per time unit?
284
What does a high/low Set criterion imply?
- High: less false alarms, less hits (low response rate). Conservative
- Low: much false alarms, much hits (high response rate). Liberal
285
Define sensitivity decrement
Lett attentive or less able to distinguish signal from noise
286
How do you reduce the perceptual load?
Increase signal salience/reduce noise
287
How do you reduce memory load?
Show target examples
288
How do you increase perceptual sensitivity?
- Clear instructions
- Feedback on performance
- Insert fake signals
289
Are humans part of a closed loop or open loop system?
Humans are part of a closed loop system
290
Describe manual control
The study of negative feedback control systems in which the loop is closed through a human operator
291
How is manual control studied?
Human operator is given a task or goal to accomplish by observing displays and manipulating controls
292
Describe integrated displays
- Possible to present many variables on a small number of/one computer screen
- Visual information in any shape/size/colour and can be called up when needed
- Integrated displays replaced the many different displays on one machine
- Downside: location cue is lost (keyhole problem), forget how to access
293
Fitts list: Mention things that humans are good at
- Detection
- Perception
- Improvisation
- Flexibility
- Selective information recall (long term memory)
- Inductive reasoning
- judgement
- See big picture
294
Fitts list: Mention things that machines are good at
- Speed/force tasks
- Precision
- repetition
- short term memory
- deductive reasoning
- multi-tasking
- See details
295
What is Direct manual control?
Man continuously observing a system
296
Describe Skill-based behaviour
Represents sensory-motor performance during acts or activities which take place without conscious control as smooth, automated, and highly integrated pattern of behaviour (drawing, bicycle riding, musical performance)
297
Name some instances where monitoring for failures and deviations are important
- Air traffic control
- military systems
- cockpit
- seaboard navigation
- industrial inspection
- airport baggage inspection
- cytological screening
- medical imaging
- anasthesia
- ECG monitoring
298
Define Neuroergonomics
Application of neuroscience to ergonomics research, biological explanations to human cognition.
299
Define criticism on Fitts list
- No longer valid as originally stated, machines more capable and surpassed humans
- Various (human) design factors (cognition) play a role in function allocation. Have influence on decision which functions have to be automated and which not
- Automation can have pitfalls or side effects => loss of situation awareness
- Not always static allocation of the function to machine or human => different levels and stages of automation (partially automated)
300
How has automation and technological improvement affected accidents in aviation?
Accident rates have been reduced, accidents these days are predominantly caused by 'pilot error'
301
Define clumsy automation
Automation that are difficult to use and understand => increased mental workload
302
Define Workload
Hypothetical construct that represents the cost incurred by a human operator to achieve a particular level of performance. => Experienced load or experienced task difficulty
303
What is mental workload a function of?
- Task demands => defined in number of subtasks, time limits, quality of equipment, environment etc
- Operators behavior => his own skills, strategies, degree of effort put
- Speed and accuracy performance => operators performance influences task demands (when doing well, new task could be solved quicker)
- Operators perception => inferred task goals, knowledge-of-results feedback, bias of misperceptions
304
Define Representativeness heuristic
Information-processing shortcut
305
Define Availability heuristic
Estimate likelihood of an event based on availability.
306
Describe the correlation between human skill and trust in automation
Negative correlation between human skill and trust in automation: manually skilled people are less likely to trust automation than people who are unskilled and vise-versa
307
How can you work to avoid catch 22 in supervisory control?
- New types of displays that let the human understand the physical process and the required actions => equip human with feedback to maintain situation awareness
- Simulator training to practice emergency procedures
- Ensure some freedom to explore and learn from errors
- Clarify catch 22 in terms of distinction between skill, rule and knowledge-based behaviour (Rasmussen 1983)
308
Define 'fixes to fixes'
Superficial implementation of technological fixes
- Trying to improve safety by adding more automation without carrying out appropriate research
- It is possible to patch the functionalities of an automation system => might solve original problem, but introduce new ones
309
Define the Chernoff face
A type of configural display => means to represent multivariate data in the shape of a human face
- Each variable is connected to a facial feature (curvature of mouth, eccentricity of eyes, ear diameter, angle of eyebrows, length of eyebrow, position of pupils, eccentricity of upper and lower ellipse, length of nose, width of nose, half-length of eyes)
- Facilitates the perception of emergent feature that cannot be easily seen from raw data
- Used or showing for subtle features (eyebrow height, etc)
310
Name some disadvantages of Chernoff face
- Individual variables cannot be readily identified
- Difficult to relate a given change in the appearance of the face to a specific change in safety status of the power plant (many different linear and non-linear mappings making it difficult to estimate magnitude of variables)
- Certain combinations of changes in the facial characteristics can result in a face that does not appear to be distorted
311
How has the rate between machine error and human error shifted in the aviation industry?
Errors by the machine have decreased, and errors by the human have increased proportionally
312
Describe Fluid intelligence
Think logically and rapidly to solve problems in new situations => declines with age
313
Describe crystalized intelligence
Use skills, knowledge and experience => measured by vocabulary knowledge of world affairs => long term memory
314
How do stress affect the eye gaze?
- Stressed people tend to fixate on a stimuli within a small range
- Reduced horizontal and vertical gaze angle variance
- tunnel vision/cognitive lockup
- limit physical/mental attention to what is most immediate and familiar
315
How does stress affect how a person perceives time?
- Time appears to pass more slowly than normal
- Variation in spatial time sampling, distortions of time by diverted attention from temporal cues
- small variations in behaviour can make a difference between life and death
316
Name some types of human failure
- Fine plan of action, but actions do not work out as planned
- Actions as plan, but afterwards the plan appears to be inadequate
- Violations of standard procedure (harm intended/no harm intended)
317
Define difference between error and violation
Error is by accident, violation is on purpose
318
Describe issues with shared control in routine situations
1. Very modest performance improvements compared to manual control
2. Annoyance in sharp curves
3. If the algorithm knows the target path, then why not automate? (Roseborough dilemma)
- Shared control: no real benefits, but lots of problems
319
Describe issues with shared control when it is withdrawn
1. Risk of accidents when algorithm fails (as in automation)
2. Aftereffects
3. Deskilling (reduced manual control skills)
- Automation: lots of benefits, but also lots of problems
320
Describe Task demand load (TDL)
Mental effort required to accomplish the task
function of task, system and type
321
Describe Task mental load (TML)
Amount of mental workload experienced by the human
function of operator, support system and training
322
Define 'Willing-to-spend capacity'
The base level of acceptable mental load
- System factors (can be manipulated) gives task load => operator factors give workload (can be measured)
- Metaphors in stress and strain => force and deformation
- Metaphors in one channel capacity model => not more than max through a tunnel => overload
323
Name the requirements of workload assesment techniques
- Selectivity: immunity to other variables
- Obtrusiveness: Technique should not interfere with measured variable
- Diagnosticity: causal relationship between workload and operator capacity difference
- Sensitivity: assesment should be sensitive to changes in task difficulty
- Reliability: measuring under identical circumstances
- Consistency among subjects: variation between subjects shall not exceed workload index variation
- Bandwidth: workload index should be able to track the mental load variations in time
324
Describe NASA Task load index (TLX)
- Multidimensional rating instrument with 6 subscales
- After completion of the task, subject evaluates the contribution of each subscale to their mental load => weight assigned subscale
- Subject rates each task on subscales => rating for each experimental condition
- Weights and ratings are combined => weighted rating of each subject for each experimental condition
325
Define some subscales of the NASA Task load index
- Mental demand
- physical demand
- temporal demand
- effort
- performance
- frustration level
326
Name some critique on adaptive and adaptable automation
- Adaptive closed-loop systems may fall due to problems of negative feedback and closed-loop instability
- Humans do not always easily deal with rapid change in configurations
- Computers are good in taking control, not in giving it back
- Adaptive systems triggered by operator workload or physiological responses may be operator dependent => careful calibration for each individual
- Danger of operator-triggered reallocations is that an operator may fail to recognize a dangerous situation => selecting inappropriate levels of automation
327
Define Adaptive automation
Infer the need for level of automation reallocation of the basis of measured operator response, or some mission-based criterion
328
Define Adaptable automation
Operator-triggered reallocations; move the decision for timing and level of automation switches from designer to operator
329
Define the three ingredients of an accident according to James Reason
1. Holes in defences due to active failures
2. Holes in defences to latent conditions
3. Hazards
330
Describe a fault tree
- A top-down decomposition
| - System has failed, what model of component behaviour could have caused the failure?
331
Describe an event tree
- Bottom-up diverging
| - Initiating event and how can this propagate in chronological order
332
Describe Kurzveil's predictions (1999)
Technological process is exponential
- 2020: high quality of virtual reality => indistinguishable from reality
- 2030: nanomachines inserted in the brain => interact with brain cells => full immersion virtual reality generated without external equipment
- 2040: people most of the time in full-immersion virtual reality (Matrix)
- 2045: technological development overtaken by thinking machines => humans cannot comprehend what is going on (technological singularity)
333
Describe latent learning
Learning without reward or overt behavioural outcomes
334
Define factors that affect reaction time
- Modality: auditory and haptic faster than visual
- Stimulus intensity
- Stimulus response compatibility
- Individual differences (age)
- Practice
- Preparation time
- Complexity
335
Define Hick's law
Linear relationship between reaction time and information (bits)
336
What does Fitt's law define?
The speed-accuracy tradeoff
337
What does SAGAT stand for
Situation Awareness Global Assessment Technique
338
Describe the evolution of automated driving
1930 - Automatic transmission
1950 - Cruise control
1995 - Adaptive cruise control
today - Partially automated driving (lane assistance, traffic jam assist, parking)
future - Highly automated driving (automated control, steering, monitoring)
339
What is Moravec's paradox?
Moravec's paradox is the paradox which describes that taks which are easy for computers, i.e. have a low computational cost (logic, like chess), are perceived as hard, intellectual tasks for humans and vice versa (perceptual motor tasks which are easily performed by an infant, have a high computational cost)
