Foundations Flashcards
What must school psychologists have to serve diverse populations of public school students?
Preparation and expertise in the psychology of individual differences
This includes applying knowledge to develop interventions based on individual characteristics.
List the diverse backgrounds that school psychologists must be sensitive to.
- Linguistic
- Cultural
- Racial
- Ethnic
- Socioeconomic
- Biological
- Gender-related
- Personal individual disabilities and abilities
What are the essential skills school psychologists need to promote student learning?
Identifying specific learning needs and developing instructional strategies
This includes assessing various skills such as sensorimotor, cognitive, emotional, social, and academic performance.
True or False: Ethical principles for school psychologists include respect for human dignity.
True
This includes non-discrimination and fairness in interactions.
What trend in public school demographics was reported by the US Department of Education from 2000 to 2010?
A shift from 61% to 52% white and from 16% to 23% Hispanic
The proportions of ELL students also increased during this period.
What risks are associated with culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students in public schools?
- Increased risk of school failure
- Overrepresentation in special education
- Lowest scores in academic achievement
- Highest risk of dropping out
What is the significance of including CLD samples in school psychology research?
Avoids incorrect generalization of results and inappropriate interventions
Studies without CLD samples can lead to ineffective practices for these groups.
What roles do cultural brokers fulfill in school settings?
- Liaisons
- Cultural guides
- Mediators
- Catalysts for change
What knowledge areas must cultural brokers have?
- Community’s educational beliefs, values, and practices
- Educational system navigation
What are the two key elements required for cultural brokers to effectively serve as mediators?
- Establishing and sustaining trust with communities
- Dedicating time to develop meaningful relationships
How can cultural brokers support school crisis prevention?
By understanding cultural value systems and involving community groups in crisis management
This includes civic associations, social clubs, and nonprofit advocacy groups.
What did Vygotsky and Luria discover about cultural bias in educational assessment?
Inherent cultural bias in judging problem-solving strategies
Evaluators often reflected their cultural frame of reference rather than the children’s cognitive abilities.
Fill in the blank: To reduce classroom cultural bias, teachers should engage in _______.
[self-reflection]
What teaching style is associated with improved experiences for diverse students?
Warm demander teaching style
Combines affection with authority and mutual respect.
What did Arne Duncan characterize education as in his 2010 lecture?
A civil rights issue
He emphasized the need for education reform as a fight for social justice.
What is the impact of placing students in failing schools according to Mullenholz?
Undermines their human dignity
It limits their preparation for higher education and future choices.
What does social justice in education entail according to Mullenholz?
Preserving core values of solidarity and equality while protecting human dignity.
What is the consequence of placing students in failing schools?
It undermines their human dignity and limits their choices in life.
What is the main reason for reauthorizing the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)?
Reaffirming the human dignity of American students and their civil rights.
How does the author equate the American dream to students?
The dream of American students is equated to the American dream described by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
What are the four elements for empowering educational entities according to Downes?
- Autonomy
- Diversity
- Openness
- Interactivity
What does the PISA find about countries that address social inequities?
They achieve better student learning outcomes.
What is the role of national attitudes in educational equity?
Attitudes of ‘we’re all in this together’ promote educational equity.
What are the four properties educators should seek in evaluating educational research?
- Educational relevance
- Objective, systematic, rigorous methodology
- Enough detail for replication
- Independent expert review
What is the significance of random assignment in educational research?
It enhances the validity of the study by ensuring participants are randomly selected.
True or False: Validity means a test measures what it claims to measure.
True
What are the four thematic questions guiding science-based school psychology practice?
- Is there a problem, and what is it?
- Why is the problem occurring?
- What can we do about the problem?
- Did the intervention work?
What does educational problem identification often define?
A discrepancy between teacher expectations and student performance.
What is the focus of problem-solving in education?
The discrepancy, not the behavior itself.
What is the first step in planning educational interventions?
Operationally defining the educational problem.
What is involved in progress monitoring?
Establishing a process for monitoring and evaluating intervention effectiveness.
What distinguishes quantitative research from qualitative research?
Quantitative research measures findings numerically; qualitative research describes phenomena in more depth.
What is the purpose of random sampling in research?
To ensure every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
What does the independent variable represent in an experiment?
The presumed cause that affects the dependent variable.
What is the purpose of control groups in experiments?
To compare outcomes against those receiving the new intervention.
What are confounding variables?
Variables that interfere with or confuse experiment results.
What is a longitudinal design in research?
A design that compares effects on the same group over time.
Fill in the blank: The best problem analyses use students’ actual school situations and materials for the most valid performance assessment through _______.
operationalizing current environmental performance demands.
What should be included in intervention components?
- Antecedents
- Alternative skills instruction
- Instructional consequent strategies
- Reduction-oriented consequent strategies
- Long-term prevention strategies
- Team member support
What are confounding variables?
Confounding variables interfere with/confuse experiment results by also affecting the dependent variable
For example, getting more sleep/eating better could improve medical symptoms/student achievement instead of the new drug/instructional intervention.
How do researchers control for confounding variables?
Researchers control for confounding variables by making experimental conditions as equal as possible and applying statistical procedures.
What is a longitudinal design in research?
Longitudinal designs compare effects on the same group over time, typically years.
What is a cross-sectional design in research?
Cross-sectional designs compare effects between/among different groups concurrently.
What do cross-sequential designs combine?
Cross-sequential designs combine longitudinal and cross-sectional methods, testing different age cohorts at different times.
What is a normal distribution?
A normal distribution is graphed as a bell-shaped curve, with the largest number of scores/values falling in the center.
What does a positively skewed distribution look like?
A distribution with many low scores and a few unusually high scores.
In a negatively skewed distribution, how do the mean and median compare?
In negatively skewed distributions, the mean is smaller than the median.
What are measures of central tendency?
Measures of central tendency include the mean, median, and mode.
What is sampling error?
Sampling error is the difference between the values obtained for the sample and values of the same variable(s) for the corresponding population.
What is a random sample?
A random sample is selected by chance, assuring every population member an equal possibility of being chosen.
What are confidence intervals?
Confidence intervals are statistical percentages showing how often the researchers will be incorrect in predicting population results from sample results.
What does statistical significance indicate?
Statistical significance indicates whether an experiment’s result is due to chance or to a relationship between/among specific variables.
According to NASP, what practices permeate all aspects of service delivery?
Making measurements, collecting data, analyzing data, accountability, and using technology resources.
What approach do school psychologists use for professional activities?
School psychologists use a problem-solving approach.
What is treatment fidelity?
Treatment fidelity refers to evaluating how correctly educators have implemented the interventions recommended by school psychologists.
What is the purpose of Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP)?
AYP requires schools to show that their students have learned and achieved enough during each school year to meet mandated standards.
How do schools document AYP?
Schools document AYP by submitting figures showing student scores on high-stakes standardized testing instruments.
What happens if a school cannot demonstrate accountability for AYP?
If a school cannot demonstrate accountability for AYP, it must develop and implement a School Improvement Plan (SIP).
What is the range in statistics?
The range is obtained by subtracting the smallest score from the largest score.
True or False: A negatively skewed distribution has more high scores than low scores.
False.
Fill in the blank: A distribution with many high scores and a few unusually low ones is _______.
negatively skewed.
What role do school psychologists have in evaluating programs?
School psychologists use valid, reliable, and systematic procedures for collecting data to evaluate program effectiveness.
What technology resources do school psychologists use for data collection?
School psychologists utilize computer programs and spreadsheet programs for data analysis.
What is the impact of larger sample sizes on sampling error?
The larger the sample selected, the smaller the amount of sampling error.
What role do school psychologists play in instructional support?
They develop and implement evidence-based instructional strategies to improve student achievement based on assessment data
This includes promoting student-centered learning and collaborating with staff.
What are some strategies used by school psychologists to promote student learning?
They apply current empirical research on cognition and learning, develop effective instructional strategies, and utilize assistive technology.
This promotes student cognitive and academic skills.
What is the primary focus of mental health services provided by school psychologists?
To integrate mental health services and behavioral supports into academic goals for students.
This includes helping students develop self-regulation, empathy, and healthy decision-making.
What are the components of professional practices to promote schoolwide learning?
Developing behavior change programs, collaborating on effective policies, and promoting supportive school climates.
This includes applying evidence-based strategies and actively helping develop school improvement plans.
What is the purpose of the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing?
To supply criteria for evaluating testing practices and test instruments in education and psychology.
These standards apply to a wide variety of standardized instruments.
What does Principle I of the National Association of School Psychologists’ ethical principles emphasize?
Respecting the dignity and rights of all persons.
This includes autonomy, privacy, and fair treatment.
What does Principle II of the ethical principles require from school psychologists?
To act for others’ benefit and practice within their competency limits.
This includes taking responsibility for their actions and using scientific knowledge.
Which principle focuses on honesty and integrity in professional relationships?
Principle III.
It requires truthful communication and cooperation with other professionals.
What is included in Principle IV regarding responsibility?
Promoting healthy environments and working to reform social injustices.
This involves ethical behavior and contributing to the school psychology knowledge base.
Fill in the blank: The American Educational Research Association, the American Psychological Association, and the National Council on Measurement in Education developed the __________ for Educational and Psychological Testing.
[Standards]
True or False: The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing apply to observational forms and unstructured behavioral checklists.
False
The standards do not apply to unstandardized questionnaires or teacher-made tests.
What is one of the main focuses of school psychologists in developing curricula?
Helping students develop planning, organization, self-regulation, and empathy skills.
This is part of the mental health services integration.
What is the significance of the historical background of the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing?
It shows the evolution and collaboration of major organizations in developing testing standards since 1966.
This includes revisions and updates to the standards over the decades.
What are the three parts of the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing?
Foundations, Operations, and Testing Applications.
Each part addresses different aspects of testing practices.
What does the ethical principle of Fairness and Justice require from school psychologists?
To nurture safe, welcoming school climates without discrimination.
This includes promoting equal opportunities for all students.
What is the role of school psychologists in crisis situations?
To use data-based problem-solving and decision-making procedures for crisis prevention and recovery.
They are also involved in delivering mental health support during crises.
What was the first edition of the Standards of Educational and Psychological Testing published by the AERA?
1966
The first edition was prepared by a committee of AERA, APA, and NCME representatives.
How many times have the Standards of Educational and Psychological Testing been revised since the first edition?
Four times: in 1974, 1985, 1999, and 2014.
What are the five areas of focus in the 2014 edition of the Standards?
- Accountability issues related to using tests in educational policy
- Widening the concept of accessibility for all examinees
- Comprehensive representation of the role of tests in workplace settings
- Increasing use of technology in testing
- Improvements in the book’s structure
What ethical obligation do school psychologists have regarding computer technology?
To explore ways in which computers can expedite professional practice.
True or False: The NASPE code of ethics provides specific guidance regarding technology use for school psychologists.
False.
According to experts, what should school psychologists focus on when using technology?
Enhancing their practice rather than replacing traditional practices.
What organization published a code of ethics including guidelines for the use of materials and technology?
California Association of School Psychologists (CASP).
Fill in the blank: IDEA originally stood for ______.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act.
What was the previous name of IDEA before it was reauthorized in 1990?
Public Law 94-142/the Education for All Handicapped Children Act.
What does IDEA guarantee for children with disabilities?
A free, appropriate public education (FAPE) in the least restrictive environment (LRE).
What is the purpose of the 2004 reauthorization of IDEA?
To ensure availability of FAPE, protection of rights, and support for educating children with disabilities.
What does Part B of the IDEA regulations authorize?
Federal funding to US states for delivering services to children and youth with disabilities.
Define ‘specific learning disability’ as per IDEA.
A disorder affecting one or more fundamental psychological processes involved in using or understanding spoken and written language.
What does Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 protect?
Individuals with qualifying disabilities against discrimination.
True or False: Section 504 applies only to educational institutions.
False.
What are major life activities as defined under Section 504?
- Breathing
- Seeing
- Hearing
- Speaking
- Walking
- Self-care
- Learning
- Manual tasks
- Working
What does ADA stand for?
Americans with Disabilities Act.
What does Title I of the ADA prohibit?
Discrimination in employment against qualified individuals with disabilities.
What must employers provide under the ADA unless it creates undue hardship?
Reasonable accommodations.
What is the burden of proof for students claiming discrimination under the ADA?
They must prove they were affected by adverse actions based on their disabilities.
What does the ADA prohibit regarding services?
Prohibits retaliation against people who refuse inadequate services or file complaints of violations of ADA regulations.
What must students prove to claim discrimination under the ADA?
Students have the burden of proof that they were affected by adverse actions based on their disabilities.
What is required for students to qualify for ADA protection?
Students must prove they have disabilities as defined by the law, are qualified otherwise, and need reasonable accommodations.
How does ADA protection vary for students?
Protection varies based on how much a disability interferes with major life activities.
What happens to discrimination claims if students do not meet minimum requirements?
Courts dismiss claims if students do not meet minimum admission or educational program maintenance requirements.
Are educational institutions required to lower admission standards for students with disabilities?
No, institutions are not required to lower admission standards.
What is the role of educational officials in determining program requirements?
Courts typically defer to educational officials’ expertise to assess whether requirements are essential.
What is the difference between K-12 and postsecondary education regulations for students with disabilities?
K-12 requires both accommodations and modifications; postsecondary requires only reasonable accommodations.
What do testing accommodations aim to achieve for students with disabilities?
To enable effective assessment of student knowledge without disadvantaging students with disabilities.
Who proposed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)?
President Lyndon B. Johnson.
What was the purpose of the ESEA when it was signed into law in 1965?
To make additional resources available to students at risk for school failure.
What significant legislation followed the ESEA and when was it reauthorized?
The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) reauthorized in 2001.
What were some shortcomings of the No Child Left Behind Act?
Punishing failure more than rewarding success; giving states incentives for lower standards; disregarding progress in favor of absolute test scores.
What did the ESEA provide for low-income college students?
Establishment of scholarships for low-income college students.
Fill in the blank: The ADA requires higher education institutions to provide reasonable accommodations in test administration to qualified students with _______.
[disabilities]
True or False: The ADA allows modifications to the actual content of tests for students with disabilities.
False.
What are the implications of a student needing note-taking help in a lecture course?
It may be necessary for one student but not for another depending on individual circumstances.
What was the main purpose of the NCLB Act reauthorization in 2007?
To update outdated NCLB requirements and address achievement gaps.
Who emphasized greater transparency and allowed more flexibility in NCLB regulations in 2012?
President Obama.
By 2015, how many states, including D.C. and Puerto Rico, had flexibility within/around NCLB?
43 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico.
What did Secretary Duncan identify as a vision for a new ESEA in January 2015?
- Expanding high-quality preschool access
- Informing parents and teachers of student progress
- Supporting school administrators and teachers
- Encouraging district and school problem-solving innovations
- Investing in high-poverty districts and schools
- Supporting students in lowest-performing schools and underserved populations.
What were the Buckley-Pell amendments to FERPA primarily aimed at?
Resolving concerns and ambiguities identified by institutions, students, and parents.
What significant change did the Buckley-Pell amendments make to the definition of ‘education records’?
Replaced a specific list with the term ‘education records’ defined broadly.
Name one category of records excluded from FERPA under the Buckley-Pell amendments.
- Records solely held by administrative, instructional, and supervisory personnel
- Law enforcement records maintained for law enforcement purposes
- Records of personnel not in attendance
- Treatment records by psychologists, psychiatrists, or physicians.
What rights did the Buckley-Pell amendments reinforce for parents regarding educational records?
- Right to inspect/review children’s educational records
- Right to challenge educational records content
- Right to consent to educational records disclosure.
What landmark case did PARC v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (1972) address?
Access to public education for children with intellectual disabilities.
What was the primary ruling in PARC v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania?
Exclusion of children with disabilities from public education violated the Equal Protection Clause.
What did the PARC case lead to in terms of legislation?
It contributed to the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, ADA of 1990, and IDEA.
In Lau v. Nichols (1971), what was the main allegation made by the plaintiffs?
Denial of equal educational opportunities due to lack of English language instruction.
What was the outcome of the District Court’s decision in Lau v. Nichols?
The court denied relief based on the reasoning that individual differences were not school-related.
What did the Supreme Court grant in Lau v. Nichols due to the public significance of the issue?
A writ of certiorari.
Fill in the blank: The Buckley Amendment to FERPA was signed into law on _______.
August 21, 1974.
True or False: The original FERPA allowed release of personally identifiable information without parental consent.
False.
What did the Buckley-Pell amendments clarify about directory information?
Required public notice and allowed parents to refuse disclosure without permission.
What did the Buckley-Pell amendments specify about recordkeeping for educational institutions?
Institutions must keep records of all access requests to student education records.
What case involved the Supreme Court granting a writ of certiorari due to public significance?
Lau v. Nichols (1971)
The Supreme Court recognized the importance of language instruction for non-English speaking students.
What was the main issue in Lau v. Nichols (1971)?
Denial of education due to lack of English language instruction for non-English speaking students
The case involved children of Chinese immigrants in San Francisco public schools.
What did the Supreme Court identify as requirements of the California Education Code in Lau v. Nichols?
- English as the basic language of instruction in all schools
- Full-time compulsory education for students aged 6-16
- English proficiency standards for high school graduation
What was the Supreme Court’s ruling in Lau v. Nichols (1971)?
The Court overturned the Court of Appeals judgment and mandated appropriate relief for the complainants
The ruling emphasized that equal curriculum did not guarantee equal treatment.
In Hendrick Hudson Central School District v. Rowley (1982), what did Amy Rowley’s IEP require?
- Regular classroom placement
- Continued hearing aid use
- One hour daily Deaf education tutoring
- Three hours weekly SLP therapy
What was the Supreme Court’s conclusion regarding Amy Rowley’s education?
Amy was not receiving Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) because she was not achieving her full potential
The Court noted a discrepancy between her potential and academic performance.
What did the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA, 1975) aim to achieve?
Make public education available to children with disabilities
It did not guarantee specific educational outcomes.
What was the main issue in Irving Independent School District v. Tatro (1984)?
Whether the school district was required to perform clean intermittent catheterization (CIC) for Amber Tatro during school hours
What did the Supreme Court rule in Irving Independent School District v. Tatro regarding CIC?
CIC was a ‘related service’ under EHA, necessary for Amber to benefit from special education
The Court found that CIC was not a medical service but a supportive service.
What was the ruling in Oberti v. Board of Education of the Borough of Clementon (1993)?
The court found in favor of Rafael Oberti, stating that students with disabilities should not be segregated without considering supports for inclusion
What precedent was set by the court in Oberti v. Board of Education?
Schools must consider the whole range of supplemental aids and services for students with disabilities
The ruling emphasized efforts to modify regular education programs to enable curriculum access.
True or False: The Supreme Court in Lau v. Nichols cited the Fourteenth Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause.
False
The Court cited Section 601 of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 instead.
Fill in the blank: The Supreme Court ruled that the San Francisco Unified School District was required to ensure students were not denied equal educational opportunities on the basis of _______.
race, color, national origin, or language deficiency
What must schools consider before segregating students with disabilities?
Schools must consider ‘the whole range of supplemental aids and services’ and make ‘efforts to modify the regular education program’ to enable curriculum access.
What was the outcome of Oberti v. Board of Education of the Borough of Clementon (1993)?
The case enabled the Obertis to place their son Rafael in a regular education classroom, setting a precedent for other families under IDEA.
What is ‘the Oberti test’?
‘The Oberti test’ establishes high standards for school districts regarding the segregation of special-needs students.
What were some limitations of the ruling in Oberti v. Board of Education?
- Insufficient family litigation resources
- Inadequate services and supports
- Unqualified teachers
What was the purpose of the class-action suit Gaskin v. Commonwealth (1994)?
To enforce school compliance with inclusive education and supports mandated by IDEA.
What did the Court decide in the case of Newport-Mesa Unified School District v. State of California Department of Education?
The Court ruled that federal copyright law did not supersede California Education Code section 56504, requiring schools to provide copies of test protocols.
What were the factors considered in the conflict between federal copyright law and California Education Code?
- Nature and purpose of test use
- Nature of copyrighted work
- Amount used
- Market effect
What conclusion did the Court reach regarding the provision of test protocols to parents?
Providing test protocols to parents would be considered fair use under 17 U.S.C., § 107.
What recommendations did the Court make to protect school districts from copyright violations?
The Court recommended updating section 56504 to include standards for protecting disclosures for parents and addressing copyright concerns.
What did the plaintiffs challenge in Larry P. v. Riles?
The plaintiffs challenged the placement process for EMR classes, including the use of standardized IQ tests which they claimed were racially and culturally biased.
What was the racial representation in EMR classes compared to the general population in California?
While only 10% of K-12 students were black, 25% of students in EMR classes were black, indicating gross overrepresentation.
Which laws did the Court find were violated in Larry P. v. Riles?
- Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
- 1973 Rehabilitation Act
- Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA, 1975)
- Federal and state constitutional guarantees of equal protection
What did the court order in 1972 regarding the placement of black students in EMR classes?
The court ordered that black students could not be placed in EMR classes primarily based on IQ test scores if it caused racial imbalances.
What did the defendants voluntarily implement in 1975 in response to the court’s ruling?
A statewide IQ testing moratorium for EMR placement, regardless of student race.
What was the significance of the Department of Justice’s involvement in Larry P. v. Riles?
The Department of Justice supported the plaintiffs’ claims, reinforcing the argument against discriminatory practices in special education placements.
