Fossil Fuels and the Carbon Cycles

Question 1

What are the main fossil fuels that have driven global industrialization and urbanization?

Answer 1

The main fossil fuels that have driven global industrialization and urbanization are coal, oil, and natural gas.

Question 2

Despite the development of nuclear power and renewable energy, what remains the overwhelming dependence of the global economy?

Answer 2

Despite the development of nuclear power and renewable energy, the global economy remains overwhelmingly dependent on fossil fuels.

Question 3

In 2013, what percentage of global energy consumption was accounted for by fossil fuels?

Answer 3

In 2013, fossil fuels accounted for 87% of global energy consumption.

Question 4

How much CO2 is released annually from fossil fuel consumption?

Answer 4

Fossil fuel consumption releases 10 billion tonnes of CO2 to the atmosphere annually.

Question 5

By how much does atmospheric CO2 concentration increase annually due to fossil fuel consumption?

Answer 5

Atmospheric CO2 concentration increases by over 1 ppm (parts per million) annually due to fossil fuel consumption.

Question 6

Since 1750, how much cumulative anthropogenic CO2 emissions have been estimated?

Answer 6

Since 1750, cumulative anthropogenic CO2 emissions have been estimated to total nearly 2000 gigatonnes (Gt).

Question 7

What percentage of these CO2 emissions are from the burning of fossil fuels?

Answer 7

Approximately three-quarters (75%) of these CO2 emissions are from the burning of fossil fuels.

Question 8

Since 1750, how much of the anthropogenic CO2 emissions have remained in the atmosphere?

Answer 8

Since 1750, 879 Gt of anthropogenic CO2 emissions have remained in the atmosphere.

Question 9

What has been the effect of anthropogenic carbon emissions on the size of carbon stores in the atmosphere, ocean, and biosphere?

Answer 9

Anthropogenic carbon emissions have significantly impacted the size of carbon stores in the atmosphere, ocean, and biosphere.

Question 10

In the period 2000-2009, did human carbon emissions increase or decrease compared to previous decades?

Answer 10

In the period 2000-2009, human carbon emissions grew faster than in any previous decade.

Question 11

What would happen to atmospheric CO2 concentrations if there were no increased absorption of anthropogenic carbon by the oceans and biosphere?

Answer 11

If there were no increased absorption of anthropogenic carbon by the oceans and biosphere, today’s atmospheric CO2 concentrations would exceed 500 ppm.

Question 12

What is the main driver of present-day global warming?

Answer 12

The combustion of fossil fuels and the transfer of carbon from geological stores to the atmosphere and oceans are the main driver of present-day global warming.

Question 13

What is carbon capture and storage (CCS)?

Answer 13

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a technology that involves capturing and storing CO2 released by power plants and industries to mitigate carbon emissions.

Question 14

What are the three stages involved in carbon capture and storage (CCS)?

Answer 14

The three stages involved in carbon capture and storage (CCS) are separation of CO2 from emissions, compression and transportation of CO2 by pipeline, and injection into porous rocks deep underground for permanent storage.

Question 15

Where has the technology of carbon capture and storage (CCS) been piloted so far?

Answer 15

The technology of carbon capture and storage (CCS) has been piloted at just a handful of coal-fired power stations.

Question 16

What is the final step in carbon capture and storage (CCS) where CO2 is stored permanently?

Answer 16

The final step in carbon capture and storage (CCS) is injecting the CO2 into porous rocks deep underground, where it is stored permanently.

Question 17

What is the potential role of CCS in reducing greenhouse gas emissions?

Answer 17

CCS could potentially play an important part in reducing CO2 and other greenhouse gas emissions.

Question 18

What percentage of CO2 emissions in the USA come from coal- and gas-fired power stations?

Answer 18

40% of all CO2 emissions in the USA come from coal- and gas-fired power stations.

Question 19

By how much can CCS potentially reduce CO2 emissions from coal- and gas-fired power stations in the USA?

Answer 19

CCS has the potential to reduce CO2 emissions from coal- and gas-fired power stations in the USA by 80-90%.

Question 20

Where is a CCS pilot project underway in the UK?

Answer 20

A CCS pilot project is underway at Peterhead in north-east Scotland in the UK.

Question 21

Which CCS project in North Yorkshire was canceled in 2016?

Answer 21

The Drax project in North Yorkshire, designed to capture 2 million tonnes of CO2 per year, was axed in 2016.

Question 22

What was the intended destination for the captured carbon in the Drax project?

Answer 22

The carbon was intended to be transported by pipeline to the North Sea and stored in depleted gas reservoirs.

Question 23

What can CO2 gas be pumped into to extract oil that would otherwise be uneconomic to recover?

Answer 23

CO2 gas can be pumped into ‘mature’ oilfields to extract oil that would otherwise be uneconomic to recover.

Question 24

What are some limitations of CCS?

Answer 24

The effectiveness of CCS is limited by economic and geological factors.

Question 25

What are the economic challenges associated with CCS?

Answer 25

CCS involves big capital costs, with projects like Drax and Peterhead costing at least £1 billion.

Question 26

How much of a power plant’s output is typically needed for separating and compressing CO2 in CCS?

Answer 26

Typically, 20% of a power plant’s output is needed to separate the CO2 and compress it in CCS.

Question 27

What geological conditions are required for storage reservoirs in CCS?

Answer 27

Storage reservoirs in CCS require specific geological conditions, such as porous rocks overlain by impermeable strata.

Question 28

What is feedback in the context of natural systems?

Answer 28

Feedback is an automatic response to changes that disturb a system’s balance or equilibrium.

Question 29

What is positive feedback?

Answer 29

Positive feedback occurs when an initial change causes further change, leading to a ‘snowball’ effect.

Question 30

What is negative feedback?

Answer 30

Negative feedback counters system change and restores equilibrium.

Question 31

How does rising temperature affect the water cycle globally?

Answer 31

Rising temperatures increase evaporation and the atmosphere’s capacity to hold water vapor, resulting in greater cloud cover and more precipitation.

Question 32

What feedback effect is created by changes in the water cycle due to rising temperatures?

Answer 32

Changes in the water cycle due to rising temperatures create a positive feedback effect.

Question 33

How does increased water vapor in the atmosphere contribute to rising temperatures?

Answer 33

Increased water vapor in the atmosphere, as a greenhouse gas, enhances the absorption of long-wave radiation from the Earth, causing further temperature increases.

Question 34

How can more atmospheric vapor induce negative feedback?

Answer 34

More atmospheric vapor can induce negative feedback by creating greater cloud cover, which reflects more solar radiation back into space, leading to lower average global temperatures.

Question 35

In drainage basins, are inputs and outputs of water in equilibrium in the longer term?

Answer 35

In drainage basins, inputs and outputs of water are in equilibrium in the longer term.

Question 36

What is the main factor that keeps inputs and outputs of water in equilibrium in drainage basins?

Answer 36

The main factor that keeps inputs and outputs of water in equilibrium in drainage basins is the balancing effect of the water cycle

Question 37

What balances the input of precipitation in the water cycle?

Answer 37

The outputs of evapotranspiration and runoff balance the input of precipitation in the water cycle.

Question 38

Does the balance between input and output in the water cycle remain constant every year?

Answer 38

No, the balance between input and output in the water cycle varies from year to year.

Question 39

How does the water system respond to above-average precipitation?

Answer 39

The water system responds to above-average precipitation by increasing river flow and evaporation.

Question 40

What happens to excess water during above-average precipitation events?

Answer 40

Excess water recharges aquifers, increasing water storage in permeable rocks.

Question 41

Are the responses to above-average precipitation examples of positive or negative feedback?

Answer 41

The responses to above-average precipitation, such as increasing river flow and evaporation, are examples of negative feedback.

Question 42

How does the water system adjust during droughts with lower precipitation?

Answer 42

During droughts with lower precipitation, the water system adjusts by reducing runoff and evapotranspiration.

Question 43

What happens to springs and seepages as the water table falls during droughts?

Answer 43

As the water table falls during droughts, springs and seepages dry up, helping to conserve groundwater stores.

Question 44

Does feedback in the water cycle also occur at small scales?

Answer 44

Yes, feedback in the water cycle also occurs at small scales.

Question 45

In most years, is precipitation sufficient to meet the water demand of individual trees?

Answer 45

Yes, in most years, precipitation is sufficient to satisfy the water demand of individual trees.

Question 46

What happens to shallow-rooted trees like silver birch during drought years?

Answer 46

During drought years, shallow-rooted trees like silver birch become stressed.

Question 47

Why do shallow-rooted trees reduce transpiration losses during drought years?

Answer 47

Shallow-rooted trees reduce transpiration losses during drought years because the water lost in transpiration is not replaced by a similar uptake of water from the soil.

Question 48

What is the response of trees like silver birch to reduce transpiration losses during drought years?

Answer 48

The response of trees like silver birch to reduce transpiration losses during drought years is shedding some or all of its leaves.

Question 49

Is the shedding of leaves by trees like silver birch an example of positive or negative feedback?

Answer 49

The shedding of leaves by trees like silver birch is an example of negative feedback.

Question 50

What does the negative feedback loop of leaf shedding in drought years ensure?

Answer 50

The negative feedback loop of leaf shedding in drought years ensures the water balance and the survival of the tree.

Question 51

What has human activity, primarily burning fossil fuels, done to the global carbon cycle?

Answer 51

Human activity, primarily through burning fossil fuels, has increased the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere, the acidity of the oceans, and the flux of carbon between the major stores in the global carbon cycle.

Question 52

What is the process called that could neutralize rising levels of atmospheric CO2 through stimulating photosynthesis?

Answer 52

The process called carbon fertilization could neutralize rising levels of atmospheric CO2 through stimulating photosynthesis.

Question 53

How does carbon fertilization work in the carbon cycle?

Answer 53

Carbon fertilization extracts excess CO2 from the atmosphere and stores it in the biosphere through increased photosynthesis.

Question 54

Where would much of the carbon stored through carbon fertilization eventually find its way into?

Answer 54

Much of the carbon stored through carbon fertilization would eventually find its way into long-term storage in soils and ocean sediments.

Question 55

What conditions are necessary for increased primary production through carbon fertilization?

Answer 55

Increased primary production through carbon fertilization is conditional on the availability of other requirements for photosynthesis such as sunlight, soil nutrients, nitrogen, and water.

Question 56

Is it certain that the recent increase in primary production is solely due to increased atmospheric CO2?

Answer 56

No, it is not possible to say with certainty that the recent increase in primary production is solely due to increased atmospheric CO2. Other factors such as lower rainfall and increased sunlight could also contribute to the increase.

Question 57

What has been observed in the Amazon rainforest recently in terms of primary production?

Answer 57

Recently, significant increases in primary production have been observed in the Amazon rainforest.

Question 58

What could explain the increase in primary production in the Amazon rainforest?

Answer 58

The increase in primary production in the Amazon rainforest could be explained by lower rainfall, less cloud cover, and increased sunlight rather than an increase in CO2.

Question 59

How could positive feedback tip the carbon cycle into greater disequilibrium?

Answer 59

Positive feedback could tip the carbon cycle into greater disequilibrium by intensifying global warming, speeding up decomposition, and releasing more CO2 to the atmosphere, thus amplifying the greenhouse effect.

Question 60

What is happening in the Arctic tundra due to global warming?

Answer 60

In the Arctic tundra, global warming is occurring faster than in any other region.

Question 61

What happens as the Arctic sea ice and snow cover shrink due to global warming?

Answer 61

As the Arctic sea ice and snow cover shrink due to global warming, large expanses of sea and land are exposed.

Question 62

What is the significance of the changes in the Arctic tundra for the global carbon cycle?

Answer 62

The changes in the Arctic tundra are significant for the global carbon cycle because the tundra stores an estimated 1600 gigatons (Gt) of organic carbon in the permafrost.