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Form and Function Flashcards

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1
Q

what is anatomy?

A

Definition - anatome = up (ana) + cutting (tome)

anatomy can study the structure of anything from the molecular tothe organismal level.

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2
Q

how long has anatomy been around for?

A

Anatomy has been around for at least 1500 years, with many ancient civilizations being very knowledgeable about the subject.

People wanted to understand themselves and investigate what was normal andabnormal in the human body.

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3
Q

why did knowledge of anatomy vary between cultures?

A

Knowledge of anatomy varied in different cultures because of their attitudes to human dissection. Many cultures used larger animals to provide information which was not always accurate for humans.

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4
Q

disciplines of anatomy

A

Disciplines of anatomy:
* Macroscopic (gross)
* Regional
* Systemic e.g. neuroanatomy
* Microscopic
- Cytology (Cells), Histology (Tissues)
* Developmental Anatomy & Embryology

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5
Q

what are the levels of structural organisation in the body? (from microscopic to macroscopic and simplest to most complex).

A
  • Molecules
  • Organelles
  • Cells
  • Tissues
  • Organs
  • Organ Systems
  • Organisms
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6
Q

what is the principle of complementarity?

A
  • Structure follows from function.
  • What a structure can do depends on its specific form.
  • Sometimes we are not always sure of physiological function, but anatomy can provide indicators (maytake a while though!).
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7
Q

how do we study gross anatomy?

A
  • When studying the whole body, we usually divide it up into certain standard sections to make life easier:
  • Upper extremities (arms!)
  • Back
  • Head and neck
  • Thorax (chest)
  • Abdomen
  • Pelvis and perineum
  • Lower extremity (legs)
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8
Q

what are some examples of medical procedures that require an understanding of anatomy?

A
  • Keyhole surgery
  • Incisions and scars
  • Circulation – William Harvey and history
  • Anatomical variation – situs inversus
  • Tell difference between nerves, blood vessels etc.?
  • What’s normal or abnormal?
  • How do we repair things if we don’t know what they usually look like?
  • Anaesthesia/dentistry – how do you know which bit will go numb?!
  • Venepuncture and drug delivery – how do we know where to take blood or which methods to use to ge tdifferent drugs into the body?
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9
Q

situs inversus meaning?

A

reversal of normalposition of the organs

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10
Q

why is keyhole surgery used?

A

A deeper understanding of anatomy has allowed us to more accurately locate where to operate, be less invasive and thus, minimise the trauma to the patient and speed up their recovery. Keyhole surgery is now used for a wide range of operations that used to requirelarge, deep incisons that were painful and took longer to heal.

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11
Q

how is venepuncture performed?

A

Venepuncture is performed at specific sites where we know there are veins near the surface, and usually no major or fragile structures that could be damaged by the needle

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12
Q

what forms a cage to protect the brain?

A

the skull joins tightly to form a rigid cage that protects the brain

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13
Q

what is special about the bones in human fingers?

A

The bones of the fingers by contrast, are more loosely joined, which allows a variety of movements.

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14
Q

how do the lungs allow rapid movement of inhaled oxygen into the blood?

A

The walls of the air sacs in the lungs are very thin, permitting rapid movement of inhaled oxygen into the blood.

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15
Q

What is special about the bladders thicc lining

A

the lining of urinary bladder is much thicker. Yet its contraction allows for considerable stretching as the urinary bladder fills with urine

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16
Q

what are the subdisciplines/divisions of physiology?

A

neurophysiology
endocrinology
cardiovascular physiology
immunology
respiratory physiology
renal physiology

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17
Q

what is neurophysiology?

A

It represents functional properties of nerve cells.

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18
Q

what is endocrinology?

A

The study of hormones (chemical regulators) in the blood and how they control body functions

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19
Q

what is cardiovascular physiology?

A

the study of functions of the heart and blood vessels

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20
Q

what is immunology?

A

the study of how the body defends itself against disease-causing agents.

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21
Q

what is respiratory physiology?

A

It represents functions of airpassages and lungs

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22
Q

what is renal physiology?

A

It represents functions of the kidneys.
- Amongst many other sub-discipline

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23
Q

what are the levels of organisation?

A
  • Atoms
  • Cells
  • Tissues - Epithelial, muscular, nervous, connective
  • Organs - Examples include stomach, liver,brain
  • Organ Systems (11) - Digestive, Circulatory,Nervous
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24
Q

what are cells?

A

the smallest unit of all living things

they can vary in size and shape depending on their specific functions within the bodt

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25
Q

what are tissues?

A

groups of similar cells with a common function

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26
Q

what are epithelial tissues and what are its functions?

A
  • lining
  • covering
  • protection
  • absorption
  • filtration
  • secretion
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27
Q

what is the function of nervous tissue?

A

to receive and conduct electrochemical signals (irritability and conductivity)

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28
Q

function of connective tissue?

A
  • most abundant and widely distributed
  • protecting, supporting and binding together body tissues
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29
Q

what is the function of muscle tissue?

A
  • highly specialised cells contract to produce movement
  • skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle types
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29
Q

what is an organ and what are some examples?

A

Structure made up of more than one tissue type that performs a specific function in the body
* Heart
* Skin
* Lungs
* Stomach
* Kidneys

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30
Q

what is an organ system?

A
  • A group of organs cooperating to accomplish a common purpose.
  • There are 11 organ systems in the human body, each with a unique function.
  • Remember though, that, whilst being separate systems, they operate together in real life, not in isolation
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31
Q

what is is the function of the integumentary system?

A

protective function, insulates and cushions

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32
Q

what is the function of the skeletal system?

A

body protection and motion

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33
Q

what is muscular system?

A

contraction, responsible for virtually all body movement

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34
Q

what is the muscular systems functions?

A

contraction, responsible for virtually all body movement

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35
Q

what is the function of the nervous system?

A

control and communication

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36
Q

what is the function of an endocrine system?

A

coordinates and directs cellular activity

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37
Q

what is the function of the cardiovascular system?

A

transportation of oxygen,nutrients, waste, and hormones

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38
Q

what is the function of the lymphatic system?

A

fluid transport, body defence,and disease resistance

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39
Q

what is the function of the respiratory system?

A

exchange gases to supply oxygen and remove carbon dioxide.

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40
Q

what is the function of a digestie system?

A

converts food into the raw materials that build and fuel the body (ingestion,digestion, absorption, and defecation)

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41
Q

what is the function of the urinary system?

A

filter fluids, excrete wastes

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42
Q

what is the function of the reproductive system?

A

to produce offspring

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43
Q

what are the necessary life functions?

A
  • Maintaining Boundaries
  • Movement
  • Responsiveness
  • Digestion
  • Metabolism
  • Excretion
  • Reproduction
  • Growth
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44
Q

why is it important to be precise about anatomical terminology?

A

When describing the human body, we must be precise,indicating specific locations, both inside and outside the body, sometimes giving details about subsections of tissues, organs, cells etc

  • Anatomists have generated and continually updated/perfected standard atlases of the human body.
  • Official Index of Anatomical Terminology
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45
Q

what are the anatomical positions?

A
  • Body erect
  • Head, eyes, toes directed forward
  • Limbs at sides of body
  • Palms directed forward
  • When describing the body, we always assume this is the standard position of the body so everyone knows precisely what we mean
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46
Q

what are the anatomical planes?

A
  • Median = seperates body into right and left
  • Frontal (coronal) = vertical, perpendicular to median
  • Horizontal (transverse) = parallel to floor,perpendicular to median, coronal
  • Sagittal = vertical, parallel to median
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47
Q

what does the frontal plane do?

A

separates the body into Anterior and Posterior parts

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48
Q

what does the median plane do?

A

separates body into Right and Left parts

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49
Q

what does the horizontal plane do?

A

separates the body intoSuperior and Inferior parts

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50
Q

what does the sagittal plane do?

A

any plane parallel to the median plane

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51
Q

what are the anatomical terms of direction?

A

*Medial = closer to median plane
* Lateral = further from median plane
* Anterior (ventral) = towards front of body
* Posterior (dorsal) = towards back of body
* Superior (cephalic) = towards head
* Inferior (caudal) = towards bottom of feet
* Superficial = towards surface of body, part
* Deep = towards center of body, part
* Proximal = nearer origin or attachment
* Distal = further from origin or attachment

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52
Q

flexion meaning?

A

decreasing angle with frontal plane

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53
Q

extension meaning

A

increasing the angle with the frontal plane

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54
Q

define abduction in terms of movement?

A

moving away from the sagittal plane

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55
Q

define adduction in terms of movement?

A

moving towards the sagittal plane

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56
Q

protraction terms of movement meaning?

A

moving forwards along a surface

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57
Q

what is retraction?

A

moving backwards along a surface

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58
Q

elevation meaning in terms of movement?

A

raising a structure

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59
Q

depression meaning in terms of movement?

A

lowering a structure

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60
Q

what is the medial rotation in terms of movement?

A

movement around an axis of a bone towards the midline

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61
Q

what is the lateral rotation?

A

movement around an axis of a bone away from the midline

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62
Q

define pronation in terms of movement?

A

placing palm backwards along a surface

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63
Q

what is circumduction in terms of movement?

A

combined movements of flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, medial and lateral rotation circumscribe a cone

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64
Q

what s opposition?

A

bringing tips of fingers and thumb together as in picking up something up

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65
Q

what does cranial mean in anatomical positioning?

A

towards the head

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66
Q

what does caudal mean in anatomical positioning?

A

towards the feet

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67
Q

what does lateral mean in anatomical positioning?

A

from the side

68
Q

what does medial mean in anatomical positioning?

A

towards the middle

69
Q

what does proximal mean in anatomical positioning?

A

towards the attachment of a limb

70
Q

distal meaning in anatomical positioning?

A

towards fingers and toes

71
Q

superior meaning in anatomical positioning?

A

above

72
Q

inferior meaning in anatomical positioning?

A

below

73
Q

anterior meaning in anatomical positioning?

A

towards or from the front

74
Q

posterior meaning in anatomical positioning?

A

towards/from the back

75
Q

palmar meaning in anatomical positioning?

A

towards the palm of the hand

76
Q

plantar meaning in anatomical positioning?

A

towards/on the side of the foot

77
Q

what are some diseases more common in men than women?

A

osteoporosis
autoimmune diseases
depression

78
Q

why is depression more common in women?

A
  • Possibly linked to lower production of serotonin(neurotransmitter) in women
  • Sex-based differences also present in incidence and expression of schizophrenia, post-traumatic stress disorder,panic disorder, other mental illnesses
79
Q

what are some potential causes of sex based differences in normal physiology and disease?

A
  • Societal
  • lifestyle/behavior
  • Environmental
  • Healthcare
  • Genetic
  • Linked to x- or y-chromosome
  • Effects of the sex steroids
  • Androgens, Estrogens, Progestins
  • All present in both male and female
  • Estrogens & androgens physiologically important in both males and females
80
Q
A
  • Prenatal development
    -Sexual differentiation
  • Maturation: child, adolescent, young adult
  • Variation with menstrual cycle in women
  • Pregnancy
  • Abrupt drop in estrogen & progesterone at menopause
  • Gradual decline in testosterone with aging
  • Both men and women
81
Q

what are some sex based differences in body structure and body composition?

A
  • Well-known differences: in comparison with women, males have
  • Greater bone mass
  • Greater muscle mass
  • Lower percent body fat
  • Males and females also have structural differences in
  • Heart
  • Brain
  • Gastrointestinal system
82
Q

differences in ‘normal values’ between men and women

A
  • Cardiovascular
  • Renal
83
Q

what is the difference in cardiovascular function between men and women?

A
  • Blood Pressure
  • 5-10 mmHg higher in men than women
  • Difference abolished after menopause
  • Heart rate lower in men than age-matched women
  • Some intervals in ECG longer in women
84
Q

what is the difference in renal function between men and women?

A
  • Kidney filtration rate
  • Slightly lower in young women than age-matched men
  • May decline more rapidly with aging in men than women
85
Q

what is the difference in liver function between men and women?

A
  • lipid metabolism
  • drug metabolism
86
Q

how do heart disease and strokes affect men and women differently ?

A
  • Leading cause of death in men and women
  • Heart disease starts 10 years later in women than men
  • Stroke more common in women than men
  • Multiple sex-based differences in co-morbidities, symptoms, progression, outcomes
87
Q

what are the differences in heart anatomy between men and women?

A
  • Men have significantly greater left ventricular mass and chamber size than women.
  • Women have a lower resting blood pressure and higher resting heart rate and exhibit reduced tolerance to shifting posture or sudden changes in position.
  • Similarly, while blood pressure is lower in premenopausal women than in men, blood pressure gradually rises in postmenopausal women to levels equivalent to those of men.
88
Q

what are the signs of a heart attack?

A
  1. Chest discomfort or uncomfortable pressure,fullness, squeezing or pain in the center of the chest that lasts longer than a few minutes, or comes and goes.
  2. Spreading pain to one or both arms, back, jaw, orstomach.
  3. Cold sweats and nausea.
89
Q

how do the symptoms of a heart attack present differently in men and women?

A

Women often don’t experience the “hallmarks” (only 30%),instead:
* shortness of breath,
* nausea
* vomiting
* sleeplessness
* back pain or jaw pain
* a feeling of generalized weakness, fatigue in weeks prior to Acute MI!

90
Q

how does gender impact metabolism?

A
  • The average female has a higher percentage of body fat (5-10%) and lower muscle mass compared with the average male.
  • Women metabolise carbohydrates like glucose at varying rates depending upon their phase of the menstrual cycle.
  • Females burn more fat and less carbohydrate and protein compared with males during endurance exercise
91
Q

how does gender impact lung capacity?

A
  • Men have larger lungs, wider airways, andgreater lung diffusion capacity than women,even when these values are normalized to height.
  • An important consequence of this structural difference is that in contrast to healthy young men, maximal exercise capacity may be limited by pulmonary capacity in women,especially as they age.
92
Q

how does gender impact the nervous system?

A
  • Differences in pain threshold?
  • In adults, men generally possess brains about 11-12% heavier and heads around 2% larger than women.
  • There is a claim that women excel in specific language abilities, while men tend to perform better in certain spatial skills.
93
Q

how does gender impact the brains of newborns?

A
  • Newborn boys typically have brains and head circumferences that are 12-20% and 2% larger, respectively, than girls. However, when considering brain size relative to body weight, there’s minimal difference between them
94
Q

how does gender impact the anatomy of the brain?

A

Two parts of the hypothalamus, the preoptic area and the suprachiasmatic nucleus, exhibit notable distinctions between male and female brains.

Preoptic Area: This region, associated with mating behavior, is larger in volume, cross-sectional area, and cell count in males of various species, including humans. This difference becomes noticeable after the age of 4.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus: Responsible for circadian rhythms and reproduction cycles, this area differs in shape between men and women. It appears spherical in males and more elongated in females

95
Q

what does finger length tell us about gender and sexuality?

A
  • Some researchers argue that the levels of hormones in the womb can influence the way we develop not only physically, but also in terms of our sexual preferences.
  • They say a marker of the hormone levels present in the womb when we were babies is finger length.
  • Still controversial and does not account for everyone
96
Q

what are some skeletal differences seen in men and women?

A

Limbs and Digits: Men typically have slightly thicker and longer limb and digit bones, while women often have larger pelvic bones relative to body size.

Rib Cage and Teeth: Women generally have narrower rib cages, smaller teeth, and less angular mandibles.

Cranial Features: Women typically possess less pronounced cranial features, such as brow ridges and the occipital protuberance (the small bump at the back of the skull).

Hip Bones: The most noticeable difference lies in hip bones, primarily related to the reproductive process and likely influenced by biological sexual selection.

Smaller Differences: Additionally, there are several smaller distinctions between male and female human skeletons.

97
Q

can you determine sex using an individual’s skeleton?

A
  • Sex determination is only really possible with adolescent or adult skeletons because there are far fewer sexual differences in children before puberty.
  • One of the common ways to determine sex issuing the size of the bones; males tend to have larger bones than females.
  • Males also tend to have larger areas forcmuscle attachment
98
Q

how can you use pelvises to determine gender?

A

Pelvis is a good marker as it often survives in large pieces after death but this still isn’t a full-proof way of determining gender.

99
Q

what is the difference in pelvises between men and women?

A
  • The greater sciatic notch is also wider in females, usually more than 68 degrees for females and less for males.
  • The acetabulum, where the head of the femur meets the pubicbone, is typically larger and deeper in males than females.
  • The sacrum is straighter in females and more curved in males. The space in the middle of the pelvic bone (the pelvic inlet) islarger in women to facilitate birthing.
100
Q

how does gender determine skull function?

A
  • The cranium, or skull, is another useful bone for sexdetermination.
  • The chin of males tends to be more square and tends to come toa point in the middle on females.
  • The frontal bone (forehead) of males tends to be slanted back and on females it tends to be more rounded.
  • Males also tend to have brow ridges above the eyes more than females.
101
Q

how does gender impact exercise physiology and bias ?

A

Training recommendations often exhibit bias against women because they were initially developed based on all-male trials. This bias has been attributed to concerns about controlling for the menstrual cycle and the perception that females may be less willing to undergo invasive procedures like muscle biopsies.

In reality, females are frequently willing participants in studies involving muscle biopsies and similar minor procedures. This bias likely stems from cultural biases and historical male dominance in the field of science. It’s now evident that women are not as physically limited as once believed and can often perform at levels that rival or even surpass men

102
Q

what is an example of exercise physiology and bias?

A

Interestingly, females might actually have a natural advantage in ultra-endurance sports when compared to males. In a field study, when performance times were matched at a 56 km distance, females out performed males at the 90 km distance. Further analysis has revealed that males tend to outperform females at distances up to 42 km, but there’s a growing performance advantage for females beyond 66 km.

In another instance, equally trained males and females demonstrated similar performance at 42 km, but females surpassed males at the 90 km distance. It’s worth noting that women were only permitted to participate in the Olympic Marathon starting in 1984, highlighting the historical biases and evolving understanding of gender differences in endurance sport

103
Q

what are some examples of imaging in anatomy?

A
  • Cadavers
  • Histology & Microscopy
  • Biopsy
  • Scanning techniques
  • X rays
  • Anthropometry
  • Endoscopes
  • Ultrasound
104
Q

dissections and cadavers?

A
  • Body embalmed so structures are preserved.
  • Allows 3D visualisation of structures in place.
  • Requires little technology.
  • Shows the variation that occurs inreality.
  • Can study surface and deep features
  • Good training for surgery or biomedical disciplines
  • biomedical disciplines. Expensive to maintain and some skill required to do a dissection properly
105
Q

anthropometry

A
  • Involves measuring distances/lengths/diameters of body parts.
  • Measure skin folds
  • Can work out body fat content etc
106
Q

what is endoscopy?

A
  • Basically a flexible camera into the esophagus
  • Usually needs sedation/anaesthesia
  • Quite safe
107
Q

what colour is fresh tissue?

A

fresh tissue is colourless and squishy

108
Q

how is tissue preparation and viewing done?

A
  • Fresh tissue is colourless & squishy.
  • They need to undergo substantial alteration before being ready to be viewed under a microscope.
  • There are 4 steps in tissue preparation:
    1) Fixation stabilizes and preserves the tissue.
    2) Embedding converts the tissue into a solid form which can be sliced (“sectioned”)
    3) Sectioning (slicing) provides the very thin specimens needed for microscopy.
    4) Staining provides visual contrast and may help identify specific tissue components
109
Q

what are artifacts in histology?

A

Artifacts. At each step of tissue preparation artifactscan be produced by altering or distorting the natural appearance of cells

110
Q

what are the different types of microscopes?

A
  • Light microscope
  • Transmission Electron Microscope
  • Scanning Electron Microscope
111
Q

how can you read a slide while doing a light microscopy?

A
  • Identify stain used
  • Identify cells, nuclei, extracellular space
  • Identify tissue types and cell types in the tissue
  • For each cell type – determine size (How?),shape (describe using histological terms –cuboidal/squamous etc) ,staining properties.
  • Identify extracellular material.
112
Q

who discovered the x-ray and when?

A

in 1895, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovered an unknowntype of radiation. He called it “X-rays.”

113
Q

why are x-rays good?

A

they are easy to use, images can be quite clear and they are used routinely

114
Q

what are some situations where x-rays cant be used?

A

they arent good for imaging soft tissues and are dangerous during pregnancys

115
Q

what are the improvements that have been made to x-rays?

A
  • Lower dose of ionizing radiation
  • More sensitive film material
  • Digital image sensors and processing
116
Q

what are typical problems that can arise when using x-rays?

A
  • Low contrast
    Can use digital contrast enhancement to avoid taking a new picture and exposing the patient toan extra dose of radiation.
  • Hidden objects (occlusion)X-ray images are “shadow” images. Some materials are opaque under visible light, but translucent to X-rays. Some materials, like lead,completely block X-rays.
117
Q

how do different scanning methods vary in terms of their respected imaging modalities?

A

CT scanner - density of x-ray

MRI - density and structure of protons

Ultrasound - variations of acoustic impedance

Scintigraphy - density of injected isotopes

118
Q

what characteristics do we look for in medical imaging?

A
  • Field of view – will you get a decent picture?
  • Radiation to patient and to operator
  • Functional or anatomical imaging
  • neurological activity, blood flow, cardiac activity

*Consider what it’s best at for
- bone, soft tissue, foetus, surface/deep tumours,etc

  • Clinical or scientific use?
  • diagnosis, surgical, navigation
119
Q

what is an ultrasound?

A

Ultrasound scans use high frequency sound waves to produce an image and do not expose the individual to radiation. The procedure is painless and safe as well as being cheap and easy. However, sometimes the images are difficult to interpret for the beginner!

120
Q

what is an abdominal ultrasound?

A

Abdominal ultrasound is a scanning technique used to image the interior of the abdomen

121
Q

how do ultrasounds work?

A
  • An ultrasound machine creates images that allow various organs in the body to be examined.
  • The machine sends out high-frequency sound waves, which reflect off body structures.

*A computer receives these reflected waves and uses them to create a picture.

122
Q

what is the main difference between an x-ray and ultrasound?

A

Unlike with an x-ray, there is no ionizing radiation exposure with this test.

123
Q

what is applied before an ultrasound?

A

A clear, water-based conducting gel is applied to the skin over the area being examined to help with the transmission of the soundwaves.

124
Q

what is the probe used in an ultrasound called?

A

A handheld probe called a transducer is then moved over the area being examined

125
Q

what is a CT scan?

A
  • A CT or CAT scan (computed tomography) is a much more sensitive imaging technique than x-ray, allowing high definition not only of the bony structures, but of the soft tissues.
  • Clear images of organs such as the brain, muscles, joint structures, veins and arteries, as well as anomalies like tumours and hemorrhages may be obtained with or without the injection of contrasting dye
126
Q

how do CT scans work?

A

they can take data and reconstruct to give views from different planes

this is really useful for seeing inside complex structures like the skull where you can’t be too invasive or want to know where to put your keyhole instruments

This is because it can take single slice images and make them into a 3D model

127
Q

how do MRIs work?

A

the patient goes through a narrow tube that moves the patient through a tunnel where radio waves then pass through the patient to create a 3D image of the internal structures

this method is safer for pregnant women

128
Q

what do MRIs use to produce images?

A

MRI uses powerful magnets and radio waves. The MRI scanner contains the magnet. The magnetic field produced by an MRI is about 10 thousand times greater than the earth’s

The magnetic field forces hydrogen atoms in the body to line up in acertain way (similar to how the needle on a compass moves when you hold it near a magnet). When radio waves are sent toward the lined-up hydrogen atoms, they bounce back, and a computer records the signal. Different types of tissues send back different signals. For example, healthy tissue sends back a slightly different signal than cancerous tissue

Because the magnet is very, very strong, certain types of metal can cause significant errors, called artifacts, in the images.

129
Q

what are single MRI images called?

A

Single MRI images are called slices. The images can be stored on a computer or printed on film

130
Q

why are the cardiovascular and respiratory systems so related?

A

The cardiovascular and respiratory systems function in an integrated manner. Together they ensure access to the oxygen for every single cell of the body, and also allow disposing of the waste product, carbon dioxide

131
Q

why are the cardiovascular and respiratory systems important for exercise?

A

During exercise working muscle requires more oxygen to increase an aerobic metabolism required for generation of energy. The respiratory and cardiovascular systems must adapt to meet that demand

132
Q

what is external respiration?

A

External respiration: movement of gasses between environment and the body’s cells

133
Q

what is cellular respiration?

A

intracellular reaction of O2 with various molecules to produce CO2, H2O and energy (ATP)

134
Q

what does the respiratory system consist of?

A

nose - air enters the body where cilia and mucus trap particles and moisten and warm said air

pharynx - the air then moves down the pharynx/throat which is shared with the digestive system

epiglottis - the small flap of tissue folds over the trachea and prevents food from entering it when you swallow

larynx - the voice box: where all your vocal chords vibrate to produce sound

trachea - the air moves down from the pharynx towards your lungs through the trachea which is made of stiff rings of cartilidge which support and protect it

bronchus - air moves from the trachea into the bronchi which lead inside the lungs

lung - the main organs of respiration. they are soft and spongey texture is due to the many hollow sacs that compose them

135
Q

what fo the airways consist of?

A

the trachea branches into two bronchi, one to each lung. each bronchus branches 22 more times, finally terminating in a cluster of alveoli

136
Q

what is the structure of the alveoli?

A

the alveoli are composed of type 1 cells for gas exchange and type 2 cells that synthesize surfactant.

alveolar macrophages ingest foreign material that reaches the alveoli

each cluster of alveoli are surrounded by elastic fibres and a network of capillaries

137
Q

what happens when we breathe?

A

Occurs because the thoracic cavity changes volume

  • Inspiration uses external intercostals and diaphragm (hence the vital function of skeletal muscles)
  • Expiration is passive at rest, but uses internal intercostals and abdominals during severe respiratory load
  • Breathing rate is 10-20 breaths / minute at rest,40 - 45 at maximum exercise in adults
138
Q

what diaphragm consist of?

A

the right dome

the left dome

the right crus

the left crus

139
Q
A
139
Q

how does the diaphragm work?

A

at rest the diaphragm is relaxed

diaphragm contracts, thoracic volume increases

diaphragm relaxes, thoracic. volume decreases

140
Q

how do intercostals work?

A

“pump handle” motion increases anterior-posterior dimension of rib cage

“bucket handle” motion increases lateral dimension of rib cage

141
Q

what happens when you breathe in?

A
  • chest expands
  • diaphragm contracts

*

142
Q

what happens what you breathe out?

A
  • chest contracts
  • diaphragm relaxes
143
Q

how much dead space is in the average young male?

A

150ml

144
Q

what effects does dead space have?

A
  • Breathing 500 ml 12 times per minuteaverages to respiratory volume of 6L/min
  • However, the rate at which alveolar air is renewed, rate of alveolar ventilation, is lower due to the effect of dead space
  • VA = Freq x (VT – VD)– VA - alveolar ventilation L/min, VT– tidal volume, VD – dead space
  • VA = 12 x (500 ml – 150 ml) = 4.2L/min
  • Alveolar ventilation is one of the major determinants of the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveoli
145
Q

how long does it take to replace half of the gas in alveoli and why is this important?

A
  • To replace half of the gas in alveoli takes approximately 17 seconds
  • The slow replacement of alveolar air is of physiological importance as it prevents sudden fluctuations of gas concentration in the blood
146
Q

what is the area of gas exchange?

A

Airways connect lungs to the environment via about 20-30 branched generations

  • Alveolar surface area for gas exchange is about half the area of a tennis court
  • Pulmonary circulation is a high-flow, low-pressure system
  • Capillary surface area for gas exchange in periphery exceeds that for alveoli
147
Q

how does ventilation work during physical activity?

A
  • Increased work is initially matched by increased ventilation
  • At low work rates, extra ventilation achieved largely by increased tidal volume
  • As work continues to increase, breathing rate begins to increase, and tidal volume increases more.
148
Q

what does the cardiovascular system consist of?

A

The cardiovascular system consists of two circuits: the pulmonary circulation, from the right ventricle to the lungs and then to the left atrium; and the systemic circulation, from the left ventricle to all peripheral organs and tissues and then to the right atrium

149
Q

what do the arteries do?

A

Arteries carry blood away from the heart, and veins carry blood toward the heart

150
Q

what is the system circuit?

A

In the systemic circuit, the large artery leaving the left heart is the aorta, and the large veins emptying into the right heart are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. The analogous vessels in the pulmonary circulation are the pulmonary trunk and the four pulmonary veins

151
Q

what is the microcirculation?

A

The microcirculation consists of the vessels between arteries and veins: the arterioles, capillaries, and venules

152
Q

what do the atrioventricular valves do?

A

The atrioventricular (AV) valves prevent flow from the ventricles back into the atria

153
Q

what do the pulmonary and aortic valves do?

A

The pulmonary and aortic valves prevent back flowfrom the pulmonary trunk into the right ventricle and fromthe aorta into the left ventricle

154
Q

what are cardiac muscle cells connected by?

A

Cardiac muscle cells are joined by gap junctions that permit action potentials to be conducted from cell to cell

155
Q

what does the myocardium contain?

A

The myocardium also contains specialised muscle cells that constitute the conducting system of the heart,initiating the cardiac action potentials and speeding their spread through the heart.

156
Q

what are excitable cells?

A
  • Membrane of excitable cells is “polarized” (see Figure)* What is the cause of polarization?
  • Polarization in excitable cells can change rapidly and transiently (depolarization and repolarization)
157
Q

what is an action potential?

A
  • Action potential involves a swift shift in membrane potential, encompassing depolarization and subsequent repolarization. This local event propagates through the cell membrane, where depolarization in one area excites adjacent portions.
  • The unequal distribution of Na+, K+, and Ca2+ ions across the cell membrane is crucial. Na+ and Ca2+ ions move outward, while K+ ions move inward, establishing an essential imbalance.
  • Ion passage through the cell membrane is limited to ion channels. These channels, particularly voltage-gated sodium, calcium, and potassium channels, play a pivotal role in controlling the permeability of the cardiac cell membrane to specific ions.
  • The initiation of the action potential involves the sequential opening of voltage-gated sodium and calcium channels. This allows a rapid influx of Na+ and Ca2+, resulting in an increase in positive charge on the inner side of the cell membrane, causing depolarization.
  • The depolarization event triggers a cascade of changes. Sodium and calcium channels subsequently close, while potassium channels open. This leads to the outward diffusion of K+ ions, contributing to the repolarization of the cell membrane.
158
Q

what is cardiac excitation?

A
  • Cardiac muscle cells must undergo action potentials for contraction to occur.
  • The rapid depolarization in atrial and ventricular cells(other than those in the conducting system) is due to increase in cell membrane permeability to sodium and calcium.
  • Following the initial rapid depolarization, the membrane remains depolarized (the plateau phase) almost the entire duration of the contraction because of prolonged entry of calcium into the cell through slow plasma-membrane channels
159
Q

what is the function of calcium in excitation contraction coupling?

A
  • Calcium, mainly released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum(SR), functions as the excitation- contraction coupler in cardiac muscle, as in skeletal muscle, by combining with troponin.
  • The major signal for calcium release from the SR is calcium entering through voltage-gated calcium channels in the plasma membrane during the action potential (Calcium Induced Calcium Release).
  • The amount of calcium released does not usually saturated troponin binding sites, and so the number of active cross bridges can be increased if cytosolic calcium is increased still further.
  • Cardiac muscle cannot undergo summation of contractions because it has a very long refractory period
160
Q

what is electrophysiology?

A
  • The SA node generates the current that leads to depolarization of all other cardiac muscle cells.
  • The SA node manifests a pacemaker potential, which brings its membrane potential to threshold and initiates an action potential.
  • The impulse spreads from the SA node throughout both atria and to the AV node, where a small delay occurs.The impulse then passes in turn into the bundle of His,right and left bundle branches, Purkinje fibres, and nonconducting-system ventricular fibres.
  • The ECG is recorded as compound action of these events via extracellular electrodes on the body surface.
161
Q

what is the cardiac cycle?

A
  • The cardiac cycle is divided into systole (contraction)and diastole (relaxation).
  • The amount of blood in the ventricles just before systole is known as the end diastolic volume (EDV). The volume remaining after ejection is the end-systolic volume ESV), and the volume ejected is the stroke volume.
  • Pressure changes in the systemic and pulmonary circulations have similar patterns but the pulmonary pressures are much lower.
  • The first heart sound is due to the closing of the AV valves, and the second to the closing of the aortic and pulmonary valves.
162
Q

how does blood flow work?

A
  • Blood flow to the major organs and areas of the body with a resting cardiac output of 5L/minis shown as:
    – an absolute rate of flow in litres per min,
    – the rate of flow per 100g of tissue-weight,
    – and as a percentage of totalflow.
  • Flow can be redistributed by altering arterial resistance.Blood is diverted from high tolow resistance arterioles
163
Q

what is the pressure gradient in blood vessels?

A

Pressure gradient in the blood vessels. Mean systemic blood pressure ranges from 93 mm Hg In the arteries to about 10 mm Hg in the venae cavae

164
Q

what determines the velocity of blood flow?

A

The total cross sectional area determines the velocity of the flow

The velocity of the flow is slowest in the capillaries and most rapid in the aorta and major arteries

165
Q

what triggers vasoconstriction?

A

Sympathetic stimulation triggers vasoconstriction However blood flow to the contracting muscles increase 10-20 fold

This is because Paracrine (local) signals(decreasing PO2 and pH,increasing PCO2 in interstitial fluid) stimulate vasodilation* Paracrine signal overrides the systemic effect of sympathetic stimulation

166
Q

Why is systolic pressure increasing with exercise intensity?

A

Baroreceptor reflex adjusts to exercise

167
Q

what does the carotid baroreceptor stimuation effect?

A

Carotid Baroreceptor Stimulation affects systolic, mean, and diastolic arterial blood pressure (ABP) and relative total muscle sympathetic nerve activity(MSNA) in hypertensive patient

Sports Science (2 decks)

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