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forensics Flashcards

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1
Q

what did Canon and Heritage find from analysis of sex offenders

A

analysed 66 cases of sexual assault against women by 27 different offenders
rape- where offender doesnt initiate high level of contact they tend to have low sexual contact in life and probably live alone
use of impersonal and degrading language- consider women as objects of desire, have failed relationships with women both domestically and in work
offenders warn victim not to go to the police- usually have knowledge of police procedures/previous offences

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2
Q

offender profiling using the top down approach

A

the aim is to narrow the list of potential suspects
involves scrutiny of the crime scene
analysis of witness reports
this approach originated with the FBI in america (1970s) using data 36 sexually motivated murderers- inclusing ted bundy and charles manson
the analysis suggested crimes could be divided into organised and disorganised

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3
Q

type of murderer from an organised offender

A

crime is planned
victim specifically targeted (particular location/charachteristics
body transported from scene of crfrime
high control of situation (use of restraints)
leaves few clues (weapon is usually hidden)
voilent fantasies acted out on victim

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4
Q

likely charachteristics of an organised offender

A

generally high IQ
socially and sexually competent
confident and attractive
usually living with a partner
car in good working order
follows media coverage of crime
experiencing anger/depression at time of attack and calm after attack

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5
Q

type of murder from a disorganised offender

A

unplanned/impulsive crime with no plan to avoid detection
random victim
engaged little with victim
facial destruction and sexually sadistic acts performed after death
little attempt to hide evidence at crime scene (body,weapon etc)

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6
Q

what are disorganised offenders usually charachterised by

A

lives alone, near to crime scene
sexually inadequate
poor social skills
severe forms of mental illness
physically or sexually abused in childhood
confused and distressed at time of attack

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7
Q

how does using the top down approach have the potential to cause harm

A

profiles based on the top down approach may be based on the barnum effect- ambiguos descriptions can be made to fit any situation eg horoscopes
profiling has the potential to cause harm because profiles may mislead investigations if they are wrong
Jackson and Beckerian suggested smart offenders can read about how profiles are constructed and deliberately mislead profilers by providing misleading clues

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8
Q

what has been argued about the relevance of the top down approach

A

critics argued the top down approach was only relevant to murder cases however
Meketa reports that 3 states in the US have used it for buglary cases and had an 85% increase in solved cases
in these cases they keep the organised/disorganised distinction but add two more categories: interpersonal (offender knows victim) and opportunistic
suggests the approach has a wider application

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9
Q

the bottom up approach of offender profiling

A

favoured in the uk where profiles are created in terms of charachteristics, social background and routine behaviour through systematic analysis of evidence at the crime scene and moving UP towards a classification rather than start with a fixed typology the profile is data driven and emerges as the investigator carries out rigorous examination of the details
uses statistical technique to produce predictions about the likely charachterstics of an offender

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10
Q

two examples of the bottom up approach

A

investigative psychology and geographical profiling

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11
Q

investigative psychology

A

attempts to apply statistical procedures alongside psychological theory
aim to establish patterns of behaviour across crime scenes
develop a statistical database to act as a baseline for comparison
specific offences then matched against database to reveal details of the offender eg family,background,personal history
aim is to see if a series of offences are linked

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12
Q

what is central to the theory of investigative psychology

A

interpersonal coherence
forensic awareness
small space analysis

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13
Q

interpersonal coherence

A

identifying correlations in individuals behaviour between day to day and the crime scene- assumes people are essentially consistent

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14
Q

forensic awareness

A

behaviours at the crime scene may reveal awareness of police techniques eg Davis 1977- rapist who conceal fingerprints often had a previous conviction for burglary

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15
Q

small space analysis

A

stats technique developed by Canter
analysed 48 crime scenes for correlations

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16
Q

what are the key things involved in geographical profiling

A

spatial consistency and crime mapping
circle theory
criminal geographic targeting

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17
Q

spatial consistency and crime mapping

A

individual activities are confined to a few fairly limited areas so a persons offences will often also be limited to that geographical area=spatial consistency
crime mapping makes inferences about likely home of offender and identifies spatial patterns of behaviour
this is the basis of canters circle theory

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18
Q

circle theory

A

identifies offender as either Marauder- live in the area crimes are committed or
commuter- travel to an area away from their home eg to work and commit crimes

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19
Q

criminal geographic targetting

A

computerised system produces a jeapordy surface showing data related to time, distance and movement to and from crime scenes

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20
Q

what offenders support the bottom up approach

A

the railway rapists
1980s

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21
Q

the railway rapists

A

24 sexual attacks and 3 murders in North London Canter analysed geographic info and combined with data of past similar attacks and was able to compile a profile of the offender

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22
Q

success in Canters first bottom up profiling case- the railway rapists

A

helped police reduce suspect pool and led to effective conviction
in surveys of 48 police forces 75% of police said profiling was helpful
however only 3% said it has helped identify the actual offender

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23
Q

evaluation of the bottom up approach- is the distinction between marauders and commuters useful

A

in a study of 45 sexual assaults (Canter and Larkin) support was found for the distinction between commuters and marauders however 91% were marauders= the majority- so how useful is it to distinguish if most are marauders anyway
Petherick said that if the offenders home isnt at the centre of the geographical circle they may look elsewhere anyway

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24
Q

what is atavistic form

A

an early biological explanation which proposed criminals are a sub species of genetic throwbacks that cant conform to the rules of modern society
such individuals are distinguished by particular facial and chranial charachteristics- these acted as markers for particular offences

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25
Q

examples of atavistic form

A

criminals- string prominent jaw high cheekbones
murderers- bloodshot eyes curly hair
sexual deviants- glinting eyes, swollen fleshy lips
fraudsters- thin and reedy lipa

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26
Q

lambrosos research 1876

A

sysetamtically examined facial and cranial charachteristics of convicts- 3839 alive and 383 dead before concluding there was an atavostic form
these features were considered to be key indivators of criminality
concluded that 40% of crime was committed by those with atavistic form charachteristics

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27
Q

what did lambroso say about environmental influences

A

inherited atavistic form interacted with a persons physical and social environment- unlikely one factor would be the cause of criminality
environment interacted with atavistic form

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28
Q

how did lambroso later distinguish different types of criminals

A

lambrosos distinguished between 3 types of criminals
born criminals- atavistic type
insane criminals- suffering from mental illness
criminaloids- a large general class of offenders whose mental charachteristics predisposed them to criminal behaviour under the right circumstances

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29
Q

what are somatotypes

A

identified 4 main types
Kretschmer studied 4,000criminals
leptosome- tall and thin pretty thieves
athletic- tall and muscular crimes of voilence
pyknic- short and fat- crimes of depression and voilence
dysplastic- more than one type of crime or crimes against morality eg prostiution

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30
Q

why might lambrosos work be accused of scientific racism and linked to the eugenics movement

A

linked to eugenics movement (Galton 1880s)
influenced by chales darwin and ‘‘survival of the genetically fit’’ theory
he suggested desorable traits are inherited eg intelligence, morality
these groups are at a genetic advantage and breed for good of society- others shouldnt

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31
Q

what contradictory evidence was there against lambrosos research

A

lambrosos research didnt use controls- cant make a comparison
contradictory evidence-Garing 1913- compared 3,000 convicts qith non convicts-found no difference except that convicts were slightly smaller

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32
Q

what are the two biological explanations of offending behaviour

A

genetic and neural

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33
Q

genetic explanations of offending behaviour

A

assume the likelehood of exhibiting criminal behaviour is determined by a persons genetic makeup

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34
Q

what twin studies looked at genetic explanations for offending behaviour

A

twin studies Raine 1993
research on delinquent behaviour of twins found 52% concordance for MZ twins compared with 21% for DZ
this suggests certain genes predispose individuals to criminal behaviours

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35
Q

what did adoption studies find about genetic explanations for offending behaviour

A

adoption studies found that adoptees whose biological mothers had a criminal record had a 50% chance of having a criminal record themselves by age 18 whereas adoptees whose biological mothers did not have a criminal record had only a 5% chance of this

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36
Q

what candidate genes are involved in offending behaviour

A

monoamine oxidase A
MAOA
Cadherin 13 CDH13
diathesis stress

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37
Q

monoamine oxidase A MAOA

A

Brunner 1993 analysed DNA of a famoly with a history of voilent criminal behaviour and found they shared a gene that casued abnormally low levels of MAOA
deficiency in MAOA has been associated with aggression and voilent crime

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38
Q

Cadherin 13 CDH13

A

Tihonen 2015
900 offenders
low MAOA
low activity from CDH13 gene
can cause voilent behaviour and crime

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39
Q

diathesis stress

A

epigentics suggests that gene expression can also be reduced by environmental factors
epigentics- genes can be switched on or off by certain environmental factors such as childhood maltreatment
if the combination of the predisposition (genes) and life experiences (environment) exceeds a threashold the person will start to exhibit offending behaviour
Capsi et al 2002- 12% of men with low MAOA genes had experienced maltreatment when they were babies

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40
Q

issues with twin evidence

A

limited because of a assumption of equal environments
assumes environmental factors rae consistent because twins are brought up together and therefore must experience similar environments- shared environments assumption -applies more to MZ than DZ twins- MZ look identical so people, especially parents may treat them more similarly

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41
Q

what is a strength of genetic explanations for offending behaviour

A

lots of research support uincluding research from adoption studies- these studies suggest genes are marginally more significant than environment in influencing offending behaviour

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42
Q

what are the two neural explanations for offending behaviour

A

brain regions
neurotransmitters

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43
Q

brain region explanations for offending behaviour

A

an explanation of behaviour (and its disorders) in terms of (dys)functions of the brain and the nervous system including brain structures such as the prefrontal cortex and neurotransmitters such as serotonin and noradrenaline

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44
Q

prefrontal cortex

A

area involved in regulating emotion and moral behaviour
reduced functioning in this region found in voilent offenders/psychopaths
lowered activity here is associated with impulsive behaviour and loss of control
implicated in planning complex cognitive behaviour personality expression decision making emotional behaviour (higher functioning)
people with antisocial personality disorder have reduced functioning on the prefrontal cortex eg lack of empathy eg Raine
looked at 71 brain imaging studies
murderes psycopaths and voilent individuals showed reduced functioning in PFC

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45
Q

limbic system

A

series of structures involved in motivation, emotion, learning and memory (amygdala mostly deals with emotion)
studied murderers found not guilty by reason of insanity
abnormal assymetries in limbic system- reduced left amygdala activity- increaszed right amygdala activity

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46
Q

neurotransmitters involved in neural explanations of offending behaviour

A

seretonin
noradrenaline
mirror neurons

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47
Q

serotonin

A

mood anxiety happiness
research shows low levels can predispose people to impulsivity and aggression
serotonin inhibits the prefrontal cortex

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48
Q

noradrenaline

A

arousal and alertness
both very high and very low levels associated with aggression
high levels associated with activation of sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight) can lead to aggression
low levels associated with reduced ability to react/percieve threat

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49
Q

mirror neurons

A

control empathy
anti social personality disorder sufferers need the empathy switch to be turned on eg told whereas non APD the empathy switch is always on

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50
Q

weaknesses of neural explanations

A

difficult to infer cause and effect- correlation- Seo et al- do low levels of seretonin cause voilence or does being voilent reduce levels of serotonin
the theory is based on research which usually looks at aggression not offending- do all aggressive people go on to offend- validity

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51
Q

strengths of neural explanations

A

it allows for many real world applications drugs or surgery to alter these neural changes eg influence diet in prisons

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52
Q

what is a psychological explanation of offending behaviour

A

personality theory
eysnecks personality theory

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53
Q

eysnecks personality questionaire

A

suggested that personality can be measured and developed the eysneck personality questionaire a test to measure the extent of extraversion, neuroticism and psychotcism
he related these personality variables to other behaviours such as criminality

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54
Q

eysnecks personality theory

A

an adults personality is a mix of biological tendencies combined with learning experiences
eysneck proposed that criminals have a specific mix that cause offending behaviour therefore criminality can be explained by specific personality traits

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55
Q

what are the three dimensions that eysneck proposed cause a person to offend

A

extraversion
neuroticism
psychoticism

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56
Q

extraversion definition

A

extraverts are charachterised as outgoing, having positive emotions but may get bpred easily, they enjoy risk and danger

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57
Q

what is extraversion biologically determined by

A

eysneck suggested extraversion is biologically determined by the overall level of arousal in a persons nervous system
extraverts have less innate cortical arousal so seek external stimulation; whereas introverts are innately over aroused so do not seek external arousal

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58
Q

extroversion/introversion

A

extraverts- under aroused nervous system- need stimulation- less likely to be affected by negative outcomes such as punishment
introverts- over aroused nervous system- avoid stimulation- cannot deal with negative outcomes casually, will take punishment to heart

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59
Q

neuroticism/stability

A

neurotic- experience more negative emotions- anxiety depression isolation anger easily upset
stable- more posotive emotional states, calm under pressure

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60
Q

neuroticism

A

based in the sympathetic nervous system, so a tendency to overreact in situations of trheat (fight or flight)

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61
Q

how does neuroticisim link to offending behaviour

A

instability in the fight or flight response may cause someone to commit a crime because your more likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening

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62
Q

psychoticism/normality

A

psychoticism is linked to higher levels of testosterone (could explain why its more prevalent in men)
charachteristics include- egocentric aggressive impulsive lack of empathy and conscience

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63
Q

how does psychoticism link to offending behaviour

A

higher levels of testosterone can cause someone to commit a crime because testosterone can cause individuals to be more aggressive and a lack of empathy is linked to offending behaviour

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64
Q

aim of mcgurk and mcdougall

A

to investigate the link between eysencks personality type and criminality

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65
Q

method of mcgurk and mcdougall

A

100 students classed as delinquents and 100 non delineunts completed EPQ
their scores were calculated

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66
Q

findings of mcgurk and mcdougall

A

there were significant differences in scores of all 3 dimensions between both groups
the delinquent group had a combination of high P E and N scores

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67
Q

conclusion of mcgurk and mcdougall

A

there is a relationship between personality (specifically extraversion neuroticism and psychoticisism) and delinquent behaviour

68
Q

evaluation of mcgurk and mcdougall

A

sample- use of control group but is 100 in each group rlly representative
method- correlation, self report
issues and debates- reductionist- only looks at personality factors as an explanation for offending behaviour
determinist-assumes individuals with these traits will go on to offend (no free will)

69
Q

what are the two cognitive explanations of offending behaviour

A

cognitive distortions
level of moral reasoning

70
Q

cognitive distortions

A

forms of irrational thinking (errors and biases) that means the individual has a distorted perception of reality which often reinforces negative thoughts and emotions
we often show faulty thinking when explaining our own behaviour but as ever we are concerned with extremes in this behaviour and evidence has linked this faulty thinking and distorted perceptions to the way in which offenders interpret the behaviour of others and justify their own actions

71
Q

how might cognititve distortions explain offending behaviour

A

in terms of criminal behaviour cogntitve distortions can allow an offender to percieve their behaviour as non criminal by denying or rationalising their crimes
the main examples of cognitive distortions which are particularly relevant to crime are hostile attribution bias and minimalisation

72
Q

minimalisations

A

cognitive distortions where the consequences of a situation are under exaggerated

73
Q

how does minimalisation explain offending behaviour

A

in criminal behaviour this explains how a criminal may reduce any negative interpretation of the crime they committed
this helps the individual accept the consequences of their behaviour and means negative emotions can be reduced

74
Q

hostile attribution bias

A

individual always thinks the worst
interpret events negatively eg neighbours are talking so complaining about me
interpretations lead to hostile behaviour
linked to aggression in offenders
these negative interpretations then lead to more aggressive behaviour- in terms of criminal behaviour, hostile attribution bias is most likely to be linked to increased levels of aggression

75
Q

what are the two cognitive distortions

A

minimalisation and hostile attribution bias

76
Q

kohlbergs levels of moral reasoning

A

cognition develops in stages
each stage represents a more advanced form of moral understanding
individuals progress through the stages in order although not many adults reach the final level

77
Q

what are the different levels of moral reasoning

A

pre conventional level
conventional level
post conventional level

78
Q

pre conventional level

A

individuals accept rules of authority figures and judge actions by their consequences
actions that results in punishment are bad
those that result in rewards are good

79
Q

conventional level

A

individuals continue to believe that conformity to social rules is undesirable but this is not out of self interest
maintaining the current social system ensures positive human relationships and social order

80
Q

post conventional level

A

individual moves beyond unquestioning compliance to the norms of the social system
the individual now defines morality in terms of abstract moral principles that apply to all societies and situations

81
Q

what is the most common level of reasoning according to kholberg

A

kholberg suggested 10% of adults reach the post conventional level so the most common level is the conventional level of moral reasoning

82
Q

how does level of moral reasoning link to offending behaviour

A

in a longitudinal study by kholberg he found that 10% of adults reach the post conventional level
most common level is conventional-adults feel breaking the law is justified if it maintains society or protects family
criminals most likely to be at the pre conventional level and believe breaking the law is ok if rewards outweigh costs/wont get caught
most reach the pre conventional stage at age 10
this fits with the age of criminal responsibility=10

83
Q

research support for kholberg

A

palmer and hollin 1998
found a link between moral reasoning and crime
compared moral reasoning in offenders (100) to a group of non offenders using the socio moral reflection measure short form (SMR-SF) which involves 11 moral dilemas
offender group showed less mature moral reasoning consistent with kholbergs predictions

84
Q

limitation of kholberg

A

the level of moral reasoning may depend on the offence
eg thornton and reid 1982
found those committing crimes for financial gain such as robbery were more likely to involve pre conventional moral reasoning than those committing impulsive crimes such as assault (pre conventional level- is about belief in evading punishment)
this suggets ks theory might not apply to all forms of crime

85
Q

real world applications of cognitive distortions

A

CBT encourages offenders to face the reality of their crimes and establish a less distorted view
research has found offending is reduced when denial and minimaloisation is reduced
this demonstrates a practical value of the therapy associated with cognitive explanations

86
Q

what are the two cognitive explanations of offending behaviour

A

cognitive distortions
kholbergs morality

87
Q

differential assoiation theory (Sutherland)

A

explains criminal behaviour in terms of social learning
suggests it is possible to predict mathematically the likelehood of offending depending on the frequency of interactions with others who view crime as favourable/non favourable
it is a social approach and can explain how criminal behaviour is seen to be passed down through generations through observations and reinforcement
individuals can therefore be socialised into a life of crime

88
Q

what is learned according to differntial association theory

A

(through interaction with others)
pro criminal attitudes from others
types of ‘‘acceptable’’ and ‘‘desirable’’ crime
methods for carrying out the crime (techniques)

89
Q

who is it learned from according to differential association theory

A

family and friends
community (attitudes, not just whether or not they are offenders)

90
Q

how is it learned according to differential association theory

A

direct and indirect operant conditioning; praise for carrying it out and observing role models

91
Q

what can sutherlands theory also be used to explain

A

why individuals can be socialised into a life of crime whilst in prison
the exposure to more experienced criminals means they learn techniques and attitudes that they go on to imitate

92
Q

what are sutherlands 9 key principles

A

criminal behaviour is learned not inherited
learning is through association with others
the association is with intimate personal groups
techniques, attitudes and motivations are learned
learning is directional- for or against crime
if favourable attitudes towards crime outweigh unfavourable the individual becomes an offender
an individuals learning will vary in frequency and intensity
criminal behaviour is learned in the same way as any behaviour
just ‘‘need’’ (eg money) is not enough to explain crime as most need but dont become criminal

93
Q

what study looked at differential association theory

A

Farrington 2006
cambridge study of delinquent behaviour

94
Q

Farrington
the cambridge study in delinquent development

A

a prospective longitudinal survey of the development of offending
started in 1961 in deprived area of south london
411 boys started at age 8
41% convicted of at least one offence by age 10-50
most significant risk factor for this was criminal familiarity, daring, low school attainment, poverty, poor parrenting
average convictions was 5

95
Q

what is a psychological explanation of offending behaviour

A

differential association

96
Q

what are methodological issues with differential association

A

in terms of peer influences it could be that offenders seek out other offenders
this would explain why offenders are likely to have peers who are offenders
some critics argue the theory isnt testable because of the difficulty of separating out learned and inherital influences
it is also unclear what ratio of favourable to unfavourable influences would tip the balance so that a person becomes criminal

97
Q

what is a strength of differential association theory

A

it changed peoples views about the origins of criminal behaviour
marked an important shift from ‘blaming’ individuals to pointing to social factors
the theory suggested crime didnt need to be explained in terms of personality but could be explained in terms of social experiences
sutherland also intorduced white collar crime- highlighting transgressions against the law comiitted by people otherwise seen as respectable and high in social status
these are non voilent crimes by business and government proffessionals such as ffraud, bribery
this approach has important real world applications because learning environments can be changed whereas genes cant

98
Q

what is a limitation of differential association theory

A

cant account for all kinds of crime
differential association is only a partial account of offending behaviour
social learning influences are confined to ‘smaller’ crimes rather than voilent and impulsive offences such as rape and murder
tho smaller crimes account for a larger % of crime than voilent and impulsive crimes
eg in england and wales in 2014 there were 500 homicides and 400,000 burglaries
differential asssociation also cant explain why most offences are committed by younger people under 21
so therefore differential association provides an incomplete explanation of offending behaviour

99
Q

what are psychodynamic explanations for offending

A

maternal deprivation
the superego

100
Q

freuds theory of personality

A

the Id- innate, pleasure principle, represents basic interests/wants, demands instant gratification
the superego- the morality principle, amoral, selfless, gives feelings of guilt, determines acceptable behaviour
the ego- mediates between the demands of the ID&superego, reality principle, anchored in the real world

101
Q

the superego and offending behaviour

A

weak/underdeveloped- lack of resolution at the phallic stage of development when children go through the oedipus/electra complex= lack of morality and behaviour driven by the id
harsh/overdeveloped- strong identification with same-sex parent leads to excessive guilt/anxiety so commits crime to get caught and punished
deviant superego- identification with criminal parent means child takes on deviant attitude of parent

102
Q

why is the superego likely to be related to offending behaviour

A

it is concerned with right and wrong
there are three ways this might happen
weak or underdeveloped superego
harsh or overdeveloped superego
deviant superego

103
Q

weak or underdeveloped superego

A

superego develops at age 4 due to the oedipus/electra complex
a child who doesnt identify with their same sex parent or whose parent is absent develops a weak superego
consequence is that the person has little control over anti social behaviour and is likely to act in ways that gratify their instinctual id impulses

104
Q

harsh or overdeveloped superego

A

a child may develop a very strong identification with a strict parent
the consequence is excessive feelings of guilt and anxiety much of the time because any time the person did act on id impulses they would feel bad
the individual would commit a crime with a wish to be caught and then the punishment would reduce their feelings of guilt

105
Q

deviant superego

A

normal identification with same sex parent means that the child takes on the same moral attitudes of the parent
in the case of children with a criminal parent the child would then adopt the same deviatnt attitudes

106
Q

what is maternal deprivation theory

A

John Bowlby proposed that prolonged separations between a mother and child would have long term emotional consequences
separation will only have this affect if this happens before the age of two and a half and if there is no substitute mother available
continuing risk up to 5 years
one potential long term consequence is affectionless psychopathy- a lack of normal affection shame or sense of responsibility
this is related to the general notion of a psycopath as someone who lacks understanding of the feelings or other people

107
Q

maternal deprivation theory and explaining delinquent behaviour

A

bowlby worked as a psychiatrist in a child guidance clinic in london which meant he regularly worked with children who had been caught stealing as his patients
he observed a number of the delinquent thieves had experienced early separations and frequent separations and displayed signs of affectionless psycopathy
this enabled them to be thieves as they could steal from others since it didnt matter to them

108
Q

what did bowlby find with the 44 theives

A

compared 44 thieves in his clinic with 44 control patients
none of controls experienced early separations compared to 39% of thieves
found that thieves with an affectionless charachter had almost all experienced frequent separations- 86% off affectionless thieves compared with 17% of other thieves

109
Q

affectionless psycopathy

A

a behaviour disorder in which the individual has no ability to experience shame or guilt and lacks a social conscience
this means they may find it ‘easier’ to commit crimes

110
Q

psychodynamic explanation for offending behaviour

A

refers to any theory that emphasies change and development in the individual particularly those theories where drive is a central concept in development

111
Q

limiatation of the 44 thieves study

A

not causal findings
separation was not manipulated
all that is demonstarted in the study is an association between separation and emotional problems
there may be other variables between preparation and emotional problems
eg could be the affectionless charachter caused the separations
so it cant be concluded from this study that prolongued separation caused emotional problems

112
Q

strength of the psychodynamic approach to explaining offending

A

important consideration of emotion
only explanation for offending behaviour that deals with the role of emotional factors
key criticism of explanations in psychology is that certain factors are overlooked eg cognitive explanations miss out on how emotion affects behaviour
the psychodynamic approach adresses this issue and includes how anxiety/feelings of rejection may contribute to offending behaviour

113
Q

research support for the link between the superego and offending behaviour

A

Miroslav Goreta conducted a freudian style analysis of ten offenders referred for psychiatric treatment
in all assessed disturbances in superego formation were diagnosed
each offender experienced unconscious feelings of guilt and the need for self punishment
goreta explained this as a result of an over harsh superego, the need for punishment manifesting itself as a desire to commit acts of wrongdoing and offend
evidence supports the role of psyychic conflicts and an over harsh superego as a bssis for offending

114
Q

counterpoint to Goretas research into the role of the superego

A

central principles of the inadequate superego theory are not supported
if this theory was correct we would expect harsh punitive parents to raise children who constantly experience feelings of guilt and anxiety
evidence suggetss the opposite- parents who rely on harsher forms of discipline raise children who are rebelious and rarely express feelings of guilt or self criticism
questions the relationship between a strong punitive internal parent and accessive feelings of guilt within the child

115
Q

what is custodial sentencing

A

when a convicted offender is sent to prison or another closed instiution such as young offenders institute or a secure psychiatric unit

116
Q

what are the aims of custodial sentencing

A

deterrence
incapacitation
retribution
rehabilitation

117
Q

detterence

A

the unpleasantness of prison is intended to deter people from offending in order to avoid being sent there and if they are sent there to stop them re offending when they get out- this is based on the behaviourist view of conditioning

118
Q

incapacitation

A

prison protects the public
some crimes are more serious risk to the public than other eg murder requires greater need for incapacitation of the offender than someone who refuses to pay a fine

119
Q

retribution

A

the level of punishment should reflect and be in proportion to the crime
it is societies revenge

120
Q

rehabilitation

A

others will argue that prison should be about rehabilitation rather than punishment
offenders should leave prison as reformed charachters and not re offned
therefore prison need to give opportunities for education courses and therapy

121
Q

psychological effects of custodial sentencing

A

stress and depression- suicide is higher in prison population than in general population and self harm- this stress also increases the risk of getting mental disorders
institutionalisation
prisonisation

122
Q

institutionalisation

A

some inmates find they are unable to cope out in the world on release from prison

123
Q

prisonisation

A

the ‘‘inmate code’’ involves behaviours that people become socialised into that are unacceptable in the outside world

124
Q

recidivism

A

the rate of re offending by ex prisoners tells us how effective prison is as a deterrent
the UK ministry of justice looks at receidivism within 12 months of release and in 2019 that was 45%
reoffending varies within a time period and by age of the offender and the type of crime
many countries keep these figures eg in Norway recidivism is as low as 20% whereas in the US, australia and denmark they have been as high as 60%

125
Q

evaluation of custodial sentencing- psychological effects

A

ministry of justice figures for 2019 show 119 suicides in england and wales prisons- much higher rate than in the general population
the highest suicide risk are young single men during the first 24 hours of confinement
the prison reform trust 2014 found that 24% of women and 15% of men show psychotic symptoms - suggesting the stress of prison may be detrimental to mental health and impact on rehabilitation
however these figures dont tell us how many of them were suffering psychotic symptoms before they went into prison- those who already had them them might explain their offending behaviour as due to the symptoms
this suggests confounding variables in the research so we cant be sure the symptoms are due to the prison environment or were they imported into the prison

126
Q

what is a strength of custodial sentencing

A

training and therapy
one objective is rehabilitation and education and training whilst in prison, can improve their job chances on release
the Vera institute of justice claims that offenders who take part in a college course are 43% less likely to reoffend upon release

127
Q

what is a limitation of custodial sentencing

A

prison can result in offenders learning new techniques for crime
this is a bigger risk for young offenders who may learn from older more experienced offenders and also may link up with them once released

128
Q

what do surveys show about custodial sentencing

A

2015 poll showed almost 50% of responders thought prison should be to punish and wanted harsher conditions in prison
that leaves around 50% who thought prison should be to rehabilitate and provide educational opportunities etc
overcrowding in prisons can be a barrier to training opportunities as can a lack of funding

129
Q

what is a behaviour modification technique used in prisons

A

token economy

130
Q

token economy

A

based on behaviourist principles: if all behaviour is learned it should be possible to unlearn behaviour
behaviour modification programs in prisons are designed to reinforce obedient behaviour (to increase it) and to punish disobedience (to remove it)- these are based on operant conditioning

131
Q

what might desirable behaviours in a prison setting include

A

obedience to prison rules
avoiding confrontation
taking part in education
keeping a prison job
keeping a cell clean

132
Q

how do token economies work

A

the desirable behaviours have to be made clear to inmates before the token economy starts and the reawrds also have to be made clear
also inmates must know that non compliance will result in the rewards being withdrawn (punishment)
tokens are given when desirable behaviour is demonstrates and their value is the reward they are associated with- this makes the tokens secondary reinforcers and the actual reward is the primary reinforcer
primary reinforcers might be a phone call, cigarettes, extra excercise allowance, food etc

133
Q

operationalising a token economy

A

target behaviours are identified and agreed with staff and inmates and must be measurable eg politeness to others
some behaviours may be harder for inmates eg not getting angry so can be worth more rewards
in some cases behaviours may be worth points which can be accumulated for a token
generally reinforcers should outnumber punishment 4:1 (Gendreau)
staff must be trained properly to implement a token economy so procedures can be standardised
they will be able to objectively record behaviours

134
Q

what research support is there for token economies

A

Hobbs 1976 set up a token economy at Alabama boys industrial school a state training school for adolscent delinquents (aged 12-15)
aim was to reduce innapropriate social behaviour before and after dinner when lining up
set up a token economy in three young offender units and used another one as a control and found significant improvement in three compared to the control

135
Q

research support for the effectiveness of token economies

A

Hobbs 1976 set up a token economy in three young offender units and used another one as a control and found significant improvement in three compared to the control
in 2004 clinton found some improvement in children with behaviour problems although not all responded to the programme- the results were improved when they made the rewards more frequent and more immediate
this suggests the programmes are effective but other research has found that consistency between staff is crucial as is quality staff training

136
Q

what is a limitation of the effectiveness of token economies and behaviour modification

A

may not be a long term solution to problem behaviour as the behaviour can revert once the individual leaves the prison
cognitive therapies such as anger management have been found to have more permanent effectiveness as they aim to give the offender an understanding of their behaviour and take responsibility for it
inmates can ‘‘play along’’ with a token economy in order to access the rewards therefore giving them little rehabilitation value

137
Q

ethical issues of behaviour modification and token economies

A

behaviour manipulated that potentially dehumanises inmates
is it more for the benefit of staff or inmates
inmates dont have a choice but to participate
should inmates be deprived of basic rights aroundd food and excercise if they dont comply- should these be considered rewards

138
Q

anger management

A

a form of cognitive behavioural therapy- cognitive approach aims to change the way an individual handles their anger and aggression
the approach accepts that situations may not be changeable but the individual can change the way they think about it and can therefore change their behaviour

139
Q

key aims of anger management

A

short term-reducing anger and aggression where it is a serious issue
longer term- rehabilitation and reduction of recidivism especially for voilent prisoners

140
Q

what 3 key aims did Novaco identify for any anger management programme

A

cognitive restructuring
regulation of arousal
behavioural strategies

141
Q

cognitive restructuring

A

greater self awareness and control over cognitive dimensions of anger

142
Q

regulation of arousal

A

learning to control the physiological state

143
Q

behavioural strategies

A

problem solving skills, strategic withdrawal and assertiveness

144
Q

most anger management programmes are based on whose work

A

most anger management programmes are based on work by Novaco- the models for anger management he produced are based on the stress inoculation model
the therapy is usually conducted in groups either inside prisons or outside
there are three key steps

145
Q

what are the three key steps to anger management

A

cognitive preparation
skill acquisition
application training

146
Q

cognitive preparation

A

learn about anger generally
analyse own anger
identify situations that make them angry

147
Q

skill acquisition

A

taught skills to help them manage anger eg self regulation, relaxation
taught better communication skills

148
Q

application training

A

apply learned skills in controlled non threatening situations
recieve feedback from therapist and other members
can try out skills in real world setting

149
Q

who did a key study into anger management

A

Jane Ireland 2014

150
Q

what did Jane Ireland do in her study

A

assessed affectiveness of anger management therapy
baseline measure of their anger before therapy started using self report questionaire
experimental group of 50 took part rest placed on a waiting list (control group)
treatment consisted of 12 one hour sessions over 3 days
8 weeks later were reassessed

151
Q

what were the findings of jane irelands study

A

significant improvement in experimental group and no changes in control group over the same time period

152
Q

success of anger management programmes

A

anger management programs are successful in reducing anger
eg Taylor and Novaco report 75% improvement rates
Landenberg and Lipsey analysed 58 studies using CBT with offenders 20 used anger control as part of therapy- found having an anger control element was significantly related to amount of improvement

153
Q

methodological issues with research into anger management programs

A

difficulties with research and making comparisons is the variability in anger programmes
some are brief lasting a few days, others may span years
some courses are run by psychiatrists and others are run by less experienced prison staff
further variability includes different kinds of offender and different anger management programs which make comparability hard
another issue is the way anger is assessed- done using either self report measures or observations by prison staff- both are subject to bias
one issue related to the assessment of treatments is the hello-goodbye effect where patients may portray themselves in a more posotive light after treatment because they want to be helpful in showing the therapy worked

154
Q

limitations of anger management programmes

A

CBT isnt for everyone- some offenders dont like having to reflect on their styles of thinking and find it difficult to make the effort involved in changing attitudes and behaviours- they might drop out of voluntary anger management programs for offenders
alternative is the use of drama based courses which are less reliant on verbal ability and more engaging
one way to cope with drop out is to assess ‘readiness to change’ before the start of an anger management programme rather than waste time with individuals who wont benefit
there are scales to measure readiness to change such as the Anger Readiness to change questionaire

155
Q

what are restorative justice programmes

A

seek to achieve justice by repairing the harm done by an offender rather than punishing them
process involves communication with the victim
offender may give payments as reparation (no communication)
more often offender will write a letter to a victim or there may be an interaction between offender and victim eg video conferencing
offenders are offered restorative justice as an option instead of a prison sentence if victim has agreed

156
Q

what are the two aims of restorative justice programmes

A

rehabilitation of offenders so they dont re offend and atonement for wrongdoing

157
Q

rehabilitation of offenders

A

the victim has an opportunity to explain the real impact of the crime and this enables the offender to understand the effects on the victim
offenders may learn to take the perspective of others which reduces the possibility of re offending
offender encouraged to take responsibility for the crime and this should have an effect on their future bahviour
being punished is a passive process but rehabilitative justice requires criminals active participation

158
Q

atonement for wrongdoing

A

offenders may offer concrete compensation for the crime (money or unpaid community work)
the ‘atonement’ is psychological by showing their feelings of guilt
the offender can also show an understanding of the effects of their action
the victim has the opportunity to express their distress and this provides the offender with a chance of developing empathy by taking the perspective of the victim

159
Q

victims perspective

A

from the victims perspective this can reduce their sense of victimisation because they are no longer powerless and have a voice
victim may develop a greater understanding of the offender by listening to their account which reduces the victims sense of being harmed

160
Q

who proposed a theory of restorative justice

A

Ted Wachtel and Paul McCold propose a theoretical framework

161
Q

what is a theory of restorative justice

A

focus should be on relationships rather than punishment
crime harms people and their relationships and justice requires that harm to be healed early models focus on offender and victim only but recent ideas recognise the effect on the wider community

162
Q

what three stakeholders must be involved according to the theory of restorative justice

A

the victim seeks reparation
the offender must take responsibility
community aims to achieve reconciliation to maintain a healthy society
if one stakeholder is involved the process is only partly restorative
if two stakeholders are involved it is mostly restorative
full restoration involves all three stakeholders eg in peace circles

163
Q

peace circles

A

set up in communities where voilence and crime levels are high
they aim to foster an environment of respect where the community offers support to victims of crime but also welcomes the offender into the circle to enable mutual understanding
everyone sits in chairs in a circle and a ‘talking piece’ is passed from one person to another and theres a ‘keeper’ whose task is to maintain an atmosphere of respect and articulate constructive solutions
there are other kinds of ‘circles of support’ that have developed with the aim of giving community support to offenderss to prevent re offending instead of excluding them

164
Q

success of restorative justice programmes for victims

A

good evidence that victims who took part in restorative justice schemes felt it was beneficial
the uk restorative justice council report 85% satisfaction from victims in face to face meetings with offenders
reports covered a large range of crimes from theft to voilent crime
Avon and Somerset reported 92.5% victim satisfaction with restorative justice when victim has been subject of a voilent crime
victims claim a greater sense of satisfaction than when cases go through mainstream courts

165
Q

success of restorative justice programs in terms of reduced offending

A

restorative justice seeks to help victims recover from offects of crime and to reduce re offending and reduce crime rates
sherman and strang reviewed 20 studies of face to face meetings between offender and victim in US UK and Australia
all studies showed reduced re offending and none were linked to higher re offending
in ome of studies (142 males convicted of voilence and property offences) there were lower re offending rates (11%) compared with a matched control group who served a short prison sentence (37%)
UK restorative justice council report an overall figure of 14% reduction in re offending rates

166
Q

ethical issues with restorative justice programmes

A

from victims perspective one of the major ethical issues is what happens if the victim feels worse afterwards
from offenders perspective making people face up to their wrongdoing can lead to abuse of power
victims can gang up on an offender especially where offender is a child
victims may try to shame the offender which isnt the intention of the process
restoratuve justice programmes need to be carefully balanced and ensure benefit to both victim and offender

167
Q
A

a level psychology (5 decks)

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