Forensic Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
What is offender profiling?
A
- A method of working out the characteristics of an offender by examining the characteristics of the crime and crime scene.
- To narrow the number of possible suspects and make links between other crimes.
- Use evidence from crime scene
2
Q
What are the two types of offender profiling?
A
- Top-down
- Bottom-up
3
Q
What is the top-down approach?
A
- FBI uses (AKA crime scene analysis)
- An analysis of previous crimes creating a profile of a likely offender - using evidence to categorise.
- Can be organised or disorganised offenders - we do not know if these are mutually exclusive
- A profiler can narrow the field of possible suspects.
- Relies on intuition and beliefs of the profiler as it relies on prior knowledge.
- Pre-existing conceptual categories
- The profile is constructed to include hypotheses.
4
Q
Key study - Top-Down approach
A
- By FBI behavioural science unit
- Drawing upon data gathered from in-depth interviews with 36 sexually motivated serial killers
- These include Ted Bundy, Richard Ramirez and Charles Manson
- Created a classification system for organised and disorganised offenders.
5
Q
Give three examples of organised offenders characteristics
A
- Has skilled, professional occupation
- Average to high intelligence
- A high degree of control during the crime
- Violent fantasies may be carried out on the victim
- Weapons hidden
- Use restraints on the victim
- Have a car in good working order
6
Q
Give three examples of disorganised offenders characteristics
A
- Unskilled work or unemployed
- Socially incompetent
- Below average intelligence
- Engage little
7
Q
What did Douglas et al. describe?
A
Describe six stages in the top-down process
- Input
- Decision
- Assessment (Wheather dis/organised)
- Profile
- Assessment
- Review
8
Q
What are some experiments that contradict the top-down approach?
A
- Assumptions about stable types - Alison
- Subjective judgements - Godwin
- Small and usual sample, self-report - FBI science unit
- Support and reliability - Canter
- Simplistic - Holmes and Walter
9
Q
Define - Crime
A
Any behaviour that is unlawful and punished by the state.
It is an act that is harmful to an individual, group or society as a whole.
10
Q
Evaluate the Top-Down Approach of offender-profiling.
A
- Real-life applications -FBI approach - 90% of policemen say they would use it again. - Used in the Ted Bundy case -Temporal validity - reliable - however causes preexisting biased which lead to prejudice - ethical problems
- Lack of construct validity with discrete offender types - Alison - criminals may evolve over time - The models have been adapted over time - validity improved - Does not account for individual differences - objective - experimentally valid
- Problems with research reliability - Holmes + Walter - over-simplistic - Canter - lack support and reliability - Still a used and trusted system however can not be generalised as many see the drawbacks and problems - cost-benefit - lack internal validity
11
Q
What is the bottom-up approach of offender profiling?
A
- A data-driven approach where statistical techniques are used to produce predictions about the likely characteristics of an offender
- Objective evidence
- Developed by Canter (hired to catch the Railway rapist)
- Model known as the five factor model
12
Q
Explain the case study for the bottom-up approach
A
- Railway Rapist - John Duffy
- 24 sexual attacks and 3 murders
- Canter analysed geographical information from the crime scene and similar attack
- Developed during the study of animal behaviours
- Track how animals move around a field and how they travel to hunt
- Either a muroder (close) or commuter (spread out)
13
Q
What was Canter’s 5 factor model?
A
- Interpersonal coherence - consistency between interactions
- Time and place - location may communicate place of residence or employment
- Criminal characteristics - classify physical
- Criminal career - committed in similar fashion or indicate how they may develop
- Forensic awareness - show an understanding of police investogation are likely to have previous encounters
14
Q
What are the two types of Bottom-Up data driven approach?
A
- Investigative psycholgy
- Geographical profiling
15
Q
What is investigative psychology?
A
- Interpersonal coherence
- Forensic awareness - Davies et al - rapists who conceal fingerprints often have previous convictions of burglary
- Small space analysis - common connections between crime scene and offenders characteristics - Salfati and Canter - identified 3 underlying themes - instrumental opportunistic, instrumental cognitive and expressive impulsive.
16
Q
Explain the experiment and conclusion of Salfati and Canter
A
- To investigate small space analysis of investigative psychology
- Analysed 24 crime scenes of 82 murder cases when the victim was a stranger
- Identified 3 underlying themes:
- Instrumental opportunistic - easiest opportunity to kill
- Instrumental cognition - planned crime due to fear of capture
- Expressive impulsive - uncontrolled (feeling provoked by victim)
17
Q
What did Davies et al. conclude?
A
- For forensic awareness in investigative psychology
- Rapists who conceal fingerprints often have previous convictions of burglary
18
Q
What are the two subsections of geographical profiling?
A
- Circle theory - Canter + Larkin - spatial mindset
- Criminal geographic targeting - Rossmo
19
Q
What experiment did Canter and Larkin investigate?
A
- Circle theory
- Most offenders have a spatial mindset (circular pattern)
- Marauder - in area of inhabitance
- Commuter - travel to another area to commit crime
20
Q
What did Rossmo investigate and conclude?
A
- Criminal geographic targeting
- Computerised system based on Rossmo Formula
- Map called Jeopardy surface - 3D to identify time, distance and movement to and from the crime scene
- Different colours indicate
21
Q
Explain the supporting case study of the south side rapist for the bottom down approach
A
- Police vet, working at the rape clinic, moved house when Police got close - organised criminal
- Investigative psychology was unsuccessful due to biases
- geographical was successful as evidence was used
22
Q
Evaluate the bottom-up approach for offender profiling
A
- Real-life applications - Case studies - A self-report questionnaire found 75% of police officers useful but only 3% gave a case where it actually worked. - not generalised - lack external validity - High internal validity - low eco validity
- Research support - Davies et al - rapists who conceal fingerprints often have previous convictions of burglary - using meta-analysis - Small space analysis improving reliability - construct validity - temporal - generalised
- Weak construct validity - Circle theory over-identified with marauders - good if spatial consistency but not otherwise - the CGT rejected by US departments - lack eco - Lack of external validity - correlation not causation - lack eco validity - not widely used
23
Q
What is the atavistic form?
A
- Early biological explanation
- Criminals are subspecies of genetic throwbacks that cannot conform to the rules of modern society
- Distinguishable by particular facial and cranial chars.
- Innate physiological makeup causes them to become criminal
- Primitive sub-species
- Lack evolutionary development so are unable to adjust to demands of civilised society and are savage and untamed
24
Q
What did Cesare Lambroso investigate?
A
- 40% of 3639 criminals studies accounted for by atavistic characteristics
- First to profile
- Against free will and supported Galton and Darwin
25
What is an application of Lambroso's ideas?
* Bram Stroker used to create the description of Dracula's face
26
Give some examples of atavistic characteristics as explained by Lambroso
* Narrow face
* Sloping brow
* Dark skin
* Extra toes, nipples or fingers
* Insensitivity to pain
* Use of slang
* Tattoos
* Unemployment
* High cheekbones
* Asymmetrical face
27
Give some specific atavistic characteristics for a murderer
* Bloodshot eyes
* Curly hair
* Long ears
28
Give some specific atavistic characteristics for a sexual deviant
* Glinting eyes
* Swollen and fleshy lips
29
Give some specific atavistic characteristics for a fraudster
* Thin and reddy lips
30
What did Kretschmer investigate and create?
* Study on 4000 convicts
* Making **classification system for somatotypes for criminals**
Classification Somatotype Criminal tendencies
1. **Lepyosome** - Tall/thin - petty crimes
2. **Athletic** - Tall/muscular - violent crimes
3. **Pyknic** - short/fat - deception
4. **Mixed** - multiple of above - crimes against morality
31
Give examples of contradictory evidence for the avastic form
* **Charles Goring** - comparing non/criminals 3000 each - no evidence except below-average intelligence (lack temporal validity)
* **Delisis** - scientific racism many characteristics suggest African descent
32
What revision did Lombroso make?
To identify environmental factors that also affect criminality
33
Evaluate the atavistic form as a historical approach
* **Biologically reductionist** - **Nature over nurture** - not identifying environmental factors - research to suggest a combination of factors that most likely cause criminality. - **diathesis-stress** - **reductionist** - **lack validity and reliability** - also **determinist** and strongly against free will
* **Eugenics debate - scientific racism** - **Culturally biased** - Original study only on an Italian sample - Delisi - suggesting African descent - **Unethical** - **eccentric** - **generalising** all characteristics to that of the Italian prison - **not pop valid**
* **Scientific Method used** - Revision to identify environmental factors affecting criminality - improving the temporal validity and external validity - Concurrent validity - combining nature and nurture debate
34
What percentage of contribution do genetics play for violent behaviours?
5-10%
35
What percentage of people have the allele for violent behaviour?
50%
36
How does diets improve the violence rate?
An improved diet improve violence rates by 37%
Environmental factors more influential
37
Explain the case study of Phineas Gage
* **Personality change due to brain damage**
* Survived impalement of iron bar
* 1894 - Railway worker
* Damage to the **prefrontal lobe**
* Physically the same by became **violent drunk, impulsive and physically and sexually abusive**
* Shows prefrontal lobe is responsible for the behaviour and moderating impulses
* And show frontal lobe is not essential to survival
38
What conclusions can be drawn from the case study of Phineas Gage?
* Shows **prefrontal lobe** is responsible for the **behaviour** and moderating **impulses**
* And show **frontal lobe** is **not essential to survival**
39
Who partook in neural studies?
Raine
40
What key study did Raine do?
* Neural studies
* Compare **27 psychopaths and 32 non-psychopaths**
* **18% volume reduction** in **amygdala** and a **thinner cortex**
* **11% reduction in the grey matter of PFC** in psychopaths
* Damage to the **amygdala, prefrontal cortex causes antisocial personality disorder**
* Link to **Gages** damage
41
What gene and protein have been associated with violent behaviour?
Gene - CDH13
Protein - Cadherin
42
What does the gene - CDH13 - and protein - cadherin - do?
* **Slows axon growth** when neurons change structure/type
* **Negative regulation** - helping energy conservation and speeds up differentiation
* **Slows natural death** of vascular cells during stressful periods (apoptosis)
* This is a **natural defence against atherosclerosis** and **harmful stress**
* **Low activity = cancer** if unchecked
43
In criminals how is the gene CDH13 different?
* **High activity**
* Interrupts the build of neural networks
* Childhood stress/trauma **methylates** the gene (switches off)
* Networks **less developed and less connected**
* Psychopaths **undeveloped internal working models** so relationships are effected
44
What is the mirror neuron theory?
* Brain **cells fire when doing action** or when you **see someone else do the action**
* Teaching **empathy** and **metarepresentation** to see **others** **perspectives**
45
Who investigated the mirror neuron theory for criminals?
* **Keysers et al.**
* Found **empathy was sporadic** for psychopaths
* When **forced** to empathise the mirror neurons are **activation**
* However, in normal peoples brains, this empathy is always switched on
46
What's included in the monoamine neurotransmitter group?
* Serotonin
* Noradrenaline
* Dopamine
* **All excitatory**
47
Explain the monoamine hypothesis
* **Excitatory** **neurotransmitters** broken down by **enzyme MAO-A**
* The production of this is controlled by the **gene MAOA**
* If lacking you're unable to reduce levels of monoamines so more **AP fired and slower to return to normal**
* **Acute response** and unable to control emotions
* MAOA found on **X chromosome** and is **dominant**
48
Why does the monoamine hypothesis suggest more men should be psychopaths?
* Criminality due to dysfunctioning MAOA gene
* MAOA gene found on the **X chromosome** and is **dominant**
* **Women inherit 2** X's so less chance of dysfunction
* **Men inherit 1** so increased risk of defect
49
What is the aim of Brunner's study?
* Study of **violence in a family with genetic abnormality**
* Explain large family behaviours where **males** affected by syndrome of **borderline mental retardation and abnormal violent behaviour**
50
Which members were included in Brunner's study?
* Males of a family
* Impulsive
* Aggressive
* Arson
* Attempted rape
* Exhibitionism
51
What method did Brunner use?
* Clinical exam of male family members compared to normal family members
* Examined behaviours
* Clinical Examination
* DNA analysis
52
What behaviours did Brunner examine?
* Repeated episodes of aggression out of proportion with provocation
* Sleep disturbances and night terrors
* Inappropriate sexual behaviours
* Arson
53
What clinical exams did Brunner do?
* All 9 affected males classified as mentally retarded - only 1 finished primary education. (IQ 85)
* All unaffected were educated and employed
* All females including carriers appear normal
54
What DNA analysis did Brunner do?
* Urine samples over 24 hours
* All affected males show genetic mutations in the genes producing MAO-A
55
What conclusion did Brunner reach?
* **MAO-A breaks down excitatory neurotransmitters**
* Eg. **Noradrenaline** - controlling arousal, **dopamine** - emotional arousal and **serotonin** - sleep
* **Low functioning MAO** increased the prevalence of these neurotransmitters
* Causing impulse control to be inhibited, spontaneous and irritable aggression, arousal seeking behaviours.
56
Give some supporting evidence for the genetic causes of criminal behaviour
* **Uirkkunen et al.** - Compulsive violent criminals have lower serotonin than planned criminals
* **Beggard et al.** - Serotonergic dysfunction linked to criminal behaviour
57
How did Mendrick et al. investigate genetic explanations?
* Adoption studies
* 14427 Danish adoptees tested
* Meta-analysis
58
What did Mendrick et al. find?
* 13.5% criminal with no criminal parents
* 14.7% with at least 1 criminal adoptive parent
* 20% with 1 criminal biological parent
* 24.5% at leat 1 criminal adoptive and 1 biological parent
59
Explain the Mobley defence
* **Committed murder** due to a **small disagreement**
* **First** to argue it was not his fault but instead his **genetic predisposition** to seek violence
* Still **convicted**
* Started
60
Evaluated the genetic explanations for criminal behaviours
* **Research support** - Serotonin linked to criminal behaviour - beggar et al. - Virkkunen et al. - **strong external validity and internal validity**
* **Research support** - **Diathesis-stress model** - adoptive parents influence criminality - biological criminality effects even if never met - diathesis - **Not reductionist** - combining bio and env.
* **Real-world applications** - MOAO gene however they were still convicted - However, they later confined with the environment and freed - **determinist** to say no free will - **diathesis-stress**
* **Application of MAOA and mirror neurons** - underdeveloped as retarded - females not as affected due to X chromosome - **strong external validity**
* **Biologically reductionist** - 5-10% contributes to a person exhibiting violent behaviour - Environmental factors more prominent - **Diathesis stress - Nature Vs. Nurture - lack pop validity**
* **Real-world Applications** - Sports - Rugby players should wear head production to prevent - **Cost-benefit** - **Ecological validity - NHS - less in hospital**
61
What are the 4 sections following the Eysenck personality test?
1. Meloncholic
2. Choleric
3. Sanguine
4. Phlegmatic
62
What was the idea behind Eysenck's theory of criminal personality?
* Caused by a **fixed criminal personality**
* **Biological origin (innate)** - prior to biological studies - believing different types of the **nervous system**
* Believed must have **biological** difference then **psychological** and **social** **stressors** to become criminal
63
What did Eysenck propose?
* Personality represented along **2 dimensions (introversion/extraversion)** and **(neuroticism/stability)**
* Criminal personality = **neuroticism/extraversion** - unstable, overly anxious and nervous
* And scores high on measures of **psychoticism** (cool, unfeeling and prone to aggression)
* Measured using **Eysenck Personality Inventory**
64
How did Eysenck link criminal behaviour and nervous system?
* Predicts arousal as overall arousal of nervous system
* **Sympathetic NS overactive** causing neuroticism (constant flight and fight) - always on edge
* Lots of strain on body due to acute HPA axis
* **Extravert** - **Under-aroused nervous system** - constantly seek excitement and increased engagement in risk-taking and dangerous behaviours
* **Neurotic** - **More reaction sympathetic NS** - Unable to react easily and easily upset - overreact to situations of threat
65
What was the third dimension added by Eysenck?
**Psychoticism/ normality**
* Allowing for high/low criminal risk
66
What was Eysenck's criminal personality?
**Neuroticism/Extravert**
* **Extravert** - constantly seek excitement and increased engagement in risk-taking and dangerous behaviours
* **Neurotic** - Unable to react easily and easily upset - overreact to situations of threat
67
What is the role of socialisation in Eysenck's theory?
* Children taught to **delay gratification**
* Becoming **socially-oriented** through conditioning
* Criminals **developmentally immature** (selfish and in need of immediate gratification)
* **High extraversion and neuroticism are difficult to condition**
* Doesn't learn to respond to antisocial impulses with anxiety
68
Explain the key study of the Marshmallow test
* generally **older children likely to resist eating** due to **socialisation and delayed gratification**
* **4/5 years is the developmental age**
* **Controlling** the impulse to eat the first marshmallow before receiving the second.
69
Evaluate Eysenck's EPQ as a psychological explanation for criminal behaviour
* **Social desirability issues** - Self-report method - crimes look better - Can be caught in lie test with 8 questions to see if the pattern had emerged - **Not reliable - lack internal validity - experiment problems with design - extraneous variables - demand characteristics.**
* **Hints at the diathesis-stress model** - Collaboration of biological, social and psychological factors cause the personality - shown in case studies - **research support** - **gender and cultural bias** - **not** **generalised** - **beta** biased - doesn’t work as well on collectivist cultures - **Not reductionist** and before its time - nervous system it neglects to identify hormones and genes - **not fully temporally valid.**
* **Strong concurrent validity** - Ideas continue to be backed up later - strong temporal validity - Recent studies eg. Marshmallow test - **Scientific methods - 3D**- adding reliability and external validity
70
What is meant by a cognitive distortion?
* faulty, biased and irrational way of thinking
* **Perceptions of self and world not matching reality**
* Usually **negative**
* Thinking **accurate**
* **Deny or rationalise criminal behaviour**
* two examples - **hostile attribution bias or minimalisation**
71
What are the two types of cognitive distortions?
* Hostile attribution bias
* Minimalisation
72
What is hostile attribution bias?
* **Violent offenders**
* Tendency to **misinterpret** or **misread** others **actions, words or expressions as aggressive, provocative or threatening**
* Misreading non-aggressive cues eg. fear=anger
* Offenders **rationalise** **behaviours** by **blaming** **victim**
73
What is minimalisation bias?
* Non-violent/sexual offenders
* **Downplay severity**
* Consequences **less significant/damaging**
* Help **accept the consequence** of offences and reduce **negative emotions** like **guilt**
* Normally against rich people like **Robin Hood.**
74
What is Kohlbergs Heinz Dilemma?
* **Moral reasoning**
* **Stage theory of moral development**
* higher-stage = more **sophisticated**, **logically** consistent and **morally** **mature**
* **Progress through stages** due to biological **maturity** and opportunities to **discuss and develop ideas**
* **Interviewed** **men** and **boys** about the reasoning behind their moral decisions
* 3 levels with two stages in each level
75
What is moral reasoning?
How an individual draws on own value system to determine whether an action is right or wrong
76
Explain the levels and stages of Kohlberg's moral development
* **preconvential morality** - 1. punishment orientation 2. reward orientation
* **Conventional** - 1. good boy/girl 2. social order
* **Post-convential** - 1. social constract + invidiual rights 2. Conscience.
77
How can criminal behaviours be applied to Heinz's moral development theory?
* Classified as **pre-conventional**
* Do not progress from 1st stage
* Less mature **child-like reasoning**
* Commit crimes if they known they will g**et away with them** or gain **rewards**
78
What is some research support for the cognitive explanations for criminal behaviours?
* **Palmer and Hollin** - compare moral reasoning fo 210 fem non-offenders and 112 male NO and 126 convicted offender - Using social-moral reflection measure - questionnaire - **offenders less mature moral reasoning**
* **Blackburn** - **correlation** due to childhood lacking moral role-play opportunities
79
Evaluate the cognitive explanation as a psychological explanation for criminal behaviour
* **Real-world application** - treating offending behaviour - to predict and reduce reoffenders - However, ‘after the fact’ theory - **External validity - economic validity**
* **Biologically reductionist** - Only using the stress of the diathesis-stress model - Other theories - Genetics eg. CDH13 and MAOA hypothesis - **determinist and lack external validity**
* **Kholberg experimentally weak** - **Beta bias** - only interviewed men and boys - Also using interview allowing demand characteristics and desirability bias - Many **confounding variables**
* **Research support - reducing gender bias** - **Meta-analysis** - a **longitudinal** study - Palmer and Hollin - **Increased reliability and external validity**
80
What is the psychological explanation by Sutherland?
* **Differential association theory**
* **Social learning theory**
* Learn through **association and interaction**
* Depend on **criminal norms/values of social group**
* Criminality arises due to:
1. **Learning attitudes towards crime**
2. **Learning specific criminal acts**
* Personal relevant (role models), long-lasting, salient/extreme and during critical period
81
What two factors causes criminality according to Sutherland?
1. Learning attitudes towards crime
2. Learning specific criminal acts
82
What research support is there for the differential association theory?
* **Osborne and West** - father with criminal conviction - 40% sons criminal by 18 compared to 13% with non-criminal father
* **Akers et al.** - survey 2,500 adolescents in US looking at peer pressure for drink or drugs.
83
Evaluate the differential association theory as a psychological explanation for criminal behaviour
* **Correlation not causation - Biologically reductionist** - genetics like MAOA and CDH13 - Only studying one variable - **Nurture over nature - no diathesis stress - not reliable**
* **Real-world applications** - Combatting criminality through adapting learning environments - Blaming social factors and not the individual - bio reductionist - rationalising and excusing the behaviour - r**ealistic solutions - eco validity - less reoffending**
* **Research support not fully valid** - Osborne and west - **beta bias** - only sons and fathers studied - Akers et al. - **cultural bias** - only US - not looking specifically at criminal behaviour - also used a survey - desirability bias and demand characteristics- more reliable but confounding variables - **not externally valid - correlation not causation**
84
Who invented the psychodynamic approach?
* Freud (ID, ego and superego)
* Not specifically for offending behaviour
* Couldn't adapt as Freud was dead
85
Who was influenced by Freud?
* **Bowlby**
* Belief that **unconscious conflicts** (innate drive) rooted in early **childhood** and determined by **interactions with parents** drive future offending behaviours
86
What are the two psychodynamic explanations for criminal behaviour?
* Inadequate superego
* Maternal deprivation theory
87
When would an inadequate superego be developed?
* End of **phallic stage**
* To **resolve** **oedipus and elxctra complex**
* **Internalise** superego of s**ame-sex parents**
* Working on **morality principle**
* **Punish** **ego** with **guilt** and **reward** with **pride**
88
What research support it there for the psychodynamic approach?
* **Blackburn**
* If superego is deficient or inadequate offending behaviour is **inevitable**
* **ID had free rein and isn't properly controlled**
89
What are the three types of inadequate superegos?
* **Weak/undeveloped** (petty crime)
* **Deviant** (guilty from wrong thing)
* **Over harsh/over developed** (self punishment)
90
What is a weak/underdeveloped superego?
* Same-sex parent absent
* Can not internalise/identify with morality
* More offending as little control over ant-social behaviour to gratify ID impulses
91
What is a deviant superego?
* If superego internalised is immoral or deviant
* Child won't associate wrong doing with guilt
92
What is the over-harsh / overdeveloped superego?
* **Child internalises superego of very strict same-sex parent**
* Individual **crippled** with **guilt** and anxiety
* Unconsciously drive to offend with the **wish of being caught** so superego is satisfied
* need to be punished to reduce guilt
93
What is the maternal deprivation theory?
* **Bowlby**
* **Reflecting adult relationships on mother relationship**
* **Monotrophy**
* **Critical periods 2.5 years** - irreversible consequences
* **Affectionless psychopath** personality type - lack guilt, empathy and strong emotions
* Likely to **re-offend**
* Orphanage experiment - parent criminals - **44 theives study**
94
Evaluate the psychodynamic approach as a psychological explanation for criminal behaviour
* **Lack external validity - no specific studies** - not measurable - **can not test** for ID, ego or superego - Adapting freudian ideas by Blackburn but didn't experiment/prove - **not reliable**
* **Unethical** - to combat over harsh developing different ways to control and punish - risk of abuse or to do the opposite and using **‘over-easy’ treatmen**t like educational programs - **eco validity - therapy to reduce reoffending**
* **Real world application**- Reduce divorce rates - to reduce offences - eco validity - 2018 ‘troubled family’ initiative - following single parents - often single mothers - preconceived bias - **ethical - protection from harm - gender bias - not generalised**
* **psychic determinism** - **predetermined** to do bad - generalised to all single-parent families - **no diathesis stress used - bio reductionist**
95
What is custodial sentencing?
Convicted offenders punished by serving time in prison or similar eg. youth offenders institute or psychiatic hospital
96
What are the 4 aims of custodial sentencing?
1. **Deterrence** - scare other individuals - operant conditioning and vicarious punishment
2. **Incapacitation** - protection of public
3. **Retribution** - revenge making offender suffer proportionally to crime
4. **Rehabilitation** - better person through education or therapy
97
Give two examples of awful prison environments
* **Brixton** - drugs - 20% tested positive in random testing
* **Wandsworth** - demeaning, unsafe and below decent
98
Give examples of alternative institutes to the common prisons
* Only 2 in UK
* **Lancaster farm** - **community**-based
* Gardens, education blocks, sports
* **Integrate** with society eg. primary school visits or elderly volunteering
* **Democratic** system
* Used as a **last resort** prison - 3 moves
* **2/3 prisoners leave within 5 years**
99
Where was Lancaster farm based off?
**Halden prison in Norway**
* Community prison
* Family stay on weekends in separate flats
* Long-term offenders
100
What are some negative psychological effects of custodial sentencing?
* Stress and depression (raised self-harm and suicide)
* Institutionalisation
* Prisonisation - adopting a culture of prison
* Overcrowding and lack of privacy
* Deinvididualisation - identify as a prisoner - zimbardo
* Effects pf family - inconsistent role models, single parent
* Labelling - a permanent record
101
What are some positive psychological effects of custodial sentencing?
* Uncommon
* Opportunities
* treatment
* rehabilitation
* remorse
102
What are some statistics about custodial sentencing?
* Criminal parent - 6 times more likely to offend
* 60% of prisoners suffer brain injury - whereas 0.05% general public
* 67% recidivism rates if under 18 (education disrupted)
* 46% adults
* Cost of re-offending £9.5 billion per year
103
What is the Norway Model?
* Eg. Halden prison
* Lowest recidivism rates in world - **20%**
* More open with no restrictions on outdoor
* **Community-based**
* Emphasis on rehabilitation and gaining skills
104
Evaluate custodial sentencing as a behaviour modification
* **Biologically reductionist** - 60% have brain trauma compared to 0.05% in the general public - vicarious reinforcement - when the released environment will mean reconviction rates will increase - **diathesis-stress model should be used - nature vs nurture**
* **Lack real-world applications** - **Wandsworth** is demeaning, unsafe and below decent. It has many corrupt officers - Common violence and rate places psychological pressure and issues on prisoners - **Long-term more harmful - unethical - lack eco validity and external validity**
* **Unethical** - **Protection from harm** - increased suicide rates - individualisation means prisoners identify as a criminal - application of **Zimbardo** - don't meet aims
* **Lack ecological validity** - 46% and 67% reconviction rates costing £9.5 billion - If criminality is fixed (brian injury 60%) then it would be impossible to rehabilitate - Costing the government and the taxpayer
105
What is a token economy as a behaviour modification technique?
* **Reinforce** obedient behaviours so good continues
* **Punish** **disobediently -** unlike SZ
* Principles of **operant conditioning**
* Effective management and monitoring during sentence
* Must be **immediate**
* **Repetition** **associated** between actions and rewards
* Establish **rewards before** the start (TV time, call to family)
* **Selective reinforcemen**t - all in contact with offender follows same regime
106
How have conjugal visits been associated with a token economy and improved prison conditions?
* Scedualled visits in private usually spouse also sex workers
* **Legal in 6 states in America**
* **Illegal in UK** (Holland and Norway allow flats for whole family)
* Shown to r**educe sexual and physical violence - D'Alessio**
107
What are some employment opportunities within prisons?
* Business bid to get prisoners to work - learn skills for cheap
* 'Slave Labour' workforce - below minimum wage
* £10 for 40hr week (£237.60 cheaper than mini)
* Eg. Speedy Hire closed 37 depots and used prisoners
108
Explain the key study by Cohen and Filipczak
* T**oken econom**y groups showed more desirable behaviour and less recidivism after 2 years
* After.3 years rates back to national statistic
* **Not long-term solution**
109
What did Blackburn investigate for token economies?
* Little rebhabillitive value
* Positive effects lost when released
* Law-abiding behaviours less rewarding than breaking law for group status
110
What did Field investigate for token economies?
* Rewards and frequency of rewards must be tailored to individual
* Youth offending setting - more positive when immediate and frequent
* Mobile apps can now be used for immediate rewards and signing off for proof of completition
111
Evaluate the token economy as a behavioural modification technique
* **Applications - unethical** - Unlike in SZ punishment is used - is this unethical - **biologically reductionist** - 60% have brain traumas - Aimed at retribution - **Protection from harm** - not helping to rehabilitate
* **Lack of ecological validity** - Local unemployment reduced as prisoners human rights are suspended for no minimum wage is enforced- Eg. South Wales £3 a day for prison workers - companies also don’t need to pay rent so overhead is reduced - Speedy Hire closed 37 depots - Rehabilitation impossible as more employment opportunities within the prison - **increase reconviction rates - protection from harm**
* **Research support**- works in the **short term** - Cohen and Filipczak - 2 years it was beneficial- **Lack of external validity** - scrapped as part of the patrol system as long term effects not beneficial. - adaptations made
112
What dod Novaco investigate?
* Humanist
* **Cognitive factors triggering emotional arousal** (anger) that generally precedes aggressive acts
* Positive reinforce becoming angry as individuals feel control in situations
* Anger Management CBT developed
113
What is the aim of anger management?
* Recognise triggers develop techniques to bring conflict-resolution without violence
* Change and manage
* Through CBT
114
How does anger management work for criminals?
* As part of custodial sentence and probation period after leaving
* Conducted in **small groups** for **10 sessions** so role-plays can be performed
* Based on stress-inoculation approach - vaccincation against future infections
115
What are the stages of anger management?
1. **Cognitive preparation** - recognise triggers and challenge irrational interpretations
2. **Skill acquisition** - techniques and skills to deal with anger-provoking situation
3. **Application practice** - applies skills in role-play of situations - positive reinforcement - later apply real-world setting
116
What is the anger arousal cycle?
* **Harper** 2004 - Anger management application
* **HPA axis** stops being calm as **constant ForF** and stress hormones
* This means less rest and digest
* When angry **less able to communicate and reason which reduces the quality of judgement**
* Show diagram and explain the process of returning after a crisis
117
Evaluate anger management as a behavioural modification technique
* **Ethical** - after 10 sessions - 76% better than other treatment methods- Protection from harm caused by custodial - depression, suicide and rape - **reliable, high external validity, cost-benefit**
* **Ecological** - On NHS, immediately expensive but a lot less than prison - £9.5 billion- Expensive training- **Cost-benefit**
* **Application CBT** - Breathing technique - 686 - Oxytocin released - Biological applied - widely used in multiple treatments eg. SZ - But no HW as a group not individual - **Reliable - external Validity - not bio reductionist**
* **Research support**- Harper 2004 - Anger Arousal Cycle - important to see plateau and recovery - the scientific method - constantly adapting- Concurrent validity - temporal validity
118
What is restorative justice?
* **Wachtel and McCold - 2003**
* Humanist (free will based)
* **Respectful and not degrading** for offender or victim
* Forming peace circles or circles of understanding
* **Aims** - explain the impact of crime, acknowledge the harm caused, ask questions, acceptance of responsibility - active rather than possible involvement
* Focus on **rehabilitation** through **reconciliation** and improving victim's life eg. PTSD
119
Explain the case study of Woolf Within (Peter Woolf)
* Grown in criminal environment
* **Will Riley** victim - experiencing psychological harm PTSD
* **Previously** **not** **remorseful**
* When impact explained Peter realised the effect and felt **guilty** - the victim wanted to help
* **Reduced reoffending by up to half**
* **85% of victims feel a positive experience**
120
What is the effect of restorative justice?
* 85% victims feel positive experience
* Proven to reduce reoffending by up to half
121
Explain the key study by Sherman and Strang
* **Meta analysis**
* **4 years** across the country
* Showed restorative justice to be at least as effective as traditional in all cases
* Compared to prisons who make worse
* Majority of **adults significantly more effective in lowering recidivism rates**
* **Lowering PTSD in victims**
122
Give an exception to the effectiveness of the restorative justice system
* **Psychopaths** as **no feeling of empathy**
* **Bernard Giles**
* **Generalising** and grouping all victims
* Feeling **stimulated and provoked**
* Receiving **pleasure from killing** - **immature** and unsustainable
* **Childish** thinking to get away with crimes
123
Evaluate the restorative justice method of behaviour modification
* **Best applications of treatment methods** - 85% victims see as a positive experience - only one to actively involve victim - PTSD - Reducing reconviction rates - half - **psychopaths** - **ecological** **aim of rehabilitation reached**
* **Ecological validity** - Adjudicators only a couple of hours on course for training - equality - prison costs - **£9.5 billion -** All prisons can use effectively - **reduction in reconviction rates** - also reduced NHS and CBT treatments for victim - LT - Equally effective between prisons - the only problem is it needs the participation of both parties - protection from harm - ethical - free will
* **Applications**- Also used in schools, workplaces and hospitals to reflect nature of crime - All parties involved have a say about punishment - High external validity - very reliable - meta-analysis
