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A level Psychology > Forensic Psychology > Flashcards

Forensic Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is offender profiling?

A
  • A method of working out the characteristics of an offender by examining the characteristics of the crime and crime scene.
  • To narrow the number of possible suspects and make links between other crimes.
  • Use evidence from crime scene
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2
Q

What are the two types of offender profiling?

A
  • Top-down
  • Bottom-up
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3
Q

What is the top-down approach?

A
  • FBI uses (AKA crime scene analysis)
  • An analysis of previous crimes creating a profile of a likely offender - using evidence to categorise.
  • Can be organised or disorganised offenders - we do not know if these are mutually exclusive
  • A profiler can narrow the field of possible suspects.
  • Relies on intuition and beliefs of the profiler as it relies on prior knowledge.
  • Pre-existing conceptual categories
  • The profile is constructed to include hypotheses.
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4
Q

Key study - Top-Down approach

A
  • By FBI behavioural science unit
  • Drawing upon data gathered from in-depth interviews with 36 sexually motivated serial killers
  • These include Ted Bundy, Richard Ramirez and Charles Manson
  • Created a classification system for organised and disorganised offenders.
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5
Q

Give three examples of organised offenders characteristics

A
  • Has skilled, professional occupation
  • Average to high intelligence
  • A high degree of control during the crime
  • Violent fantasies may be carried out on the victim
  • Weapons hidden
  • Use restraints on the victim
  • Have a car in good working order
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6
Q

Give three examples of disorganised offenders characteristics

A
  • Unskilled work or unemployed
  • Socially incompetent
  • Below average intelligence
  • Engage little
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7
Q

What did Douglas et al. describe?

A

Describe six stages in the top-down process

  1. Input
  2. Decision
  3. Assessment (Wheather dis/organised)
  4. Profile
  5. Assessment
  6. Review
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8
Q

What are some experiments that contradict the top-down approach?

A
  • Assumptions about stable types - Alison
  • Subjective judgements - Godwin
  • Small and usual sample, self-report - FBI science unit
  • Support and reliability - Canter
  • Simplistic - Holmes and Walter
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9
Q

Define - Crime

A

Any behaviour that is unlawful and punished by the state.

It is an act that is harmful to an individual, group or society as a whole.

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10
Q

Evaluate the Top-Down Approach of offender-profiling.

A
  • Real-life applications -FBI approach - 90% of policemen say they would use it again. - Used in the Ted Bundy case -Temporal validity - reliable - however causes preexisting biased which lead to prejudice - ethical problems
  • Lack of construct validity with discrete offender types - Alison - criminals may evolve over time - The models have been adapted over time - validity improved - Does not account for individual differences - objective - experimentally valid
  • Problems with research reliability - Holmes + Walter - over-simplistic - Canter - lack support and reliability - Still a used and trusted system however can not be generalised as many see the drawbacks and problems - cost-benefit - lack internal validity
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11
Q

What is the bottom-up approach of offender profiling?

A
  • A data-driven approach where statistical techniques are used to produce predictions about the likely characteristics of an offender
  • Objective evidence
  • Developed by Canter (hired to catch the Railway rapist)
  • Model known as the five factor model
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12
Q

Explain the case study for the bottom-up approach

A
  • Railway Rapist - John Duffy
  • 24 sexual attacks and 3 murders
  • Canter analysed geographical information from the crime scene and similar attack
  • Developed during the study of animal behaviours
  • Track how animals move around a field and how they travel to hunt
  • Either a muroder (close) or commuter (spread out)
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13
Q

What was Canter’s 5 factor model?

A
  1. Interpersonal coherence - consistency between interactions
  2. Time and place - location may communicate place of residence or employment
  3. Criminal characteristics - classify physical
  4. Criminal career - committed in similar fashion or indicate how they may develop
  5. Forensic awareness - show an understanding of police investogation are likely to have previous encounters
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14
Q

What are the two types of Bottom-Up data driven approach?

A
  • Investigative psycholgy
  • Geographical profiling
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15
Q

What is investigative psychology?

A
  • Interpersonal coherence
  • Forensic awareness - Davies et al - rapists who conceal fingerprints often have previous convictions of burglary
  • Small space analysis - common connections between crime scene and offenders characteristics - Salfati and Canter - identified 3 underlying themes - instrumental opportunistic, instrumental cognitive and expressive impulsive.
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16
Q

Explain the experiment and conclusion of Salfati and Canter

A
  • To investigate small space analysis of investigative psychology
  • Analysed 24 crime scenes of 82 murder cases when the victim was a stranger
  • Identified 3 underlying themes:
  1. Instrumental opportunistic - easiest opportunity to kill
  2. Instrumental cognition - planned crime due to fear of capture
  3. Expressive impulsive - uncontrolled (feeling provoked by victim)
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17
Q

What did Davies et al. conclude?

A
  • For forensic awareness in investigative psychology
  • Rapists who conceal fingerprints often have previous convictions of burglary
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18
Q

What are the two subsections of geographical profiling?

A
  • Circle theory - Canter + Larkin - spatial mindset
  • Criminal geographic targeting - Rossmo
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19
Q

What experiment did Canter and Larkin investigate?

A
  • Circle theory
  • Most offenders have a spatial mindset (circular pattern)
  • Marauder - in area of inhabitance
  • Commuter - travel to another area to commit crime
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20
Q

What did Rossmo investigate and conclude?

A
  • Criminal geographic targeting
  • Computerised system based on Rossmo Formula
  • Map called Jeopardy surface - 3D to identify time, distance and movement to and from the crime scene
  • Different colours indicate
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21
Q

Explain the supporting case study of the south side rapist for the bottom down approach

A
  • Police vet, working at the rape clinic, moved house when Police got close - organised criminal
  • Investigative psychology was unsuccessful due to biases
  • geographical was successful as evidence was used
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22
Q

Evaluate the bottom-up approach for offender profiling

A
  • Real-life applications - Case studies - A self-report questionnaire found 75% of police officers useful but only 3% gave a case where it actually worked. - not generalised - lack external validity - High internal validity - low eco validity
  • Research support - Davies et al - rapists who conceal fingerprints often have previous convictions of burglary - using meta-analysis - Small space analysis improving reliability - construct validity - temporal - generalised
  • Weak construct validity - Circle theory over-identified with marauders - good if spatial consistency but not otherwise - the CGT rejected by US departments - lack eco - Lack of external validity - correlation not causation - lack eco validity - not widely used
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23
Q

What is the atavistic form?

A
  • Early biological explanation
  • Criminals are subspecies of genetic throwbacks that cannot conform to the rules of modern society
  • Distinguishable by particular facial and cranial chars.
  • Innate physiological makeup causes them to become criminal
  • Primitive sub-species
  • Lack evolutionary development so are unable to adjust to demands of civilised society and are savage and untamed
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24
Q

What did Cesare Lambroso investigate?

A
  • 40% of 3639 criminals studies accounted for by atavistic characteristics
  • First to profile
  • Against free will and supported Galton and Darwin
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25
Q

What is an application of Lambroso’s ideas?

A
  • Bram Stroker used to create the description of Dracula’s face
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26
Q

Give some examples of atavistic characteristics as explained by Lambroso

A
  • Narrow face
  • Sloping brow
  • Dark skin
  • Extra toes, nipples or fingers
  • Insensitivity to pain
  • Use of slang
  • Tattoos
  • Unemployment
  • High cheekbones
  • Asymmetrical face
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27
Q

Give some specific atavistic characteristics for a murderer

A
  • Bloodshot eyes
  • Curly hair
  • Long ears
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28
Q

Give some specific atavistic characteristics for a sexual deviant

A
  • Glinting eyes
  • Swollen and fleshy lips
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29
Q

Give some specific atavistic characteristics for a fraudster

A
  • Thin and reddy lips
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30
Q

What did Kretschmer investigate and create?

A
  • Study on 4000 convicts
  • Making classification system for somatotypes for criminals

Classification Somatotype Criminal tendencies

  1. Lepyosome - Tall/thin - petty crimes
  2. Athletic - Tall/muscular - violent crimes
  3. Pyknic - short/fat - deception
  4. Mixed - multiple of above - crimes against morality
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31
Q

Give examples of contradictory evidence for the avastic form

A
  • Charles Goring - comparing non/criminals 3000 each - no evidence except below-average intelligence (lack temporal validity)
  • Delisis - scientific racism many characteristics suggest African descent
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32
Q

What revision did Lombroso make?

A

To identify environmental factors that also affect criminality

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33
Q

Evaluate the atavistic form as a historical approach

A
  • Biologically reductionist - Nature over nurture - not identifying environmental factors - research to suggest a combination of factors that most likely cause criminality. - diathesis-stress - reductionist - lack validity and reliability - also determinist and strongly against free will
  • Eugenics debate - scientific racism - Culturally biased - Original study only on an Italian sample - Delisi - suggesting African descent - Unethical - eccentric - generalising all characteristics to that of the Italian prison - not pop valid
  • Scientific Method used - Revision to identify environmental factors affecting criminality - improving the temporal validity and external validity - Concurrent validity - combining nature and nurture debate
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34
Q

What percentage of contribution do genetics play for violent behaviours?

A

5-10%

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35
Q

What percentage of people have the allele for violent behaviour?

A

50%

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36
Q

How does diets improve the violence rate?

A

An improved diet improve violence rates by 37%

Environmental factors more influential

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37
Q

Explain the case study of Phineas Gage

A
  • Personality change due to brain damage
  • Survived impalement of iron bar
  • 1894 - Railway worker
  • Damage to the prefrontal lobe
  • Physically the same by became violent drunk, impulsive and physically and sexually abusive
  • Shows prefrontal lobe is responsible for the behaviour and moderating impulses
  • And show frontal lobe is not essential to survival
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38
Q

What conclusions can be drawn from the case study of Phineas Gage?

A
  • Shows prefrontal lobe is responsible for the behaviour and moderating impulses
  • And show frontal lobe is not essential to survival
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39
Q

Who partook in neural studies?

A

Raine

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40
Q

What key study did Raine do?

A
  • Neural studies
  • Compare 27 psychopaths and 32 non-psychopaths
  • 18% volume reduction in amygdala and a thinner cortex
  • 11% reduction in the grey matter of PFC in psychopaths
  • Damage to the amygdala, prefrontal cortex causes antisocial personality disorder
  • Link to Gages damage
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41
Q

What gene and protein have been associated with violent behaviour?

A

Gene - CDH13

Protein - Cadherin

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42
Q

What does the gene - CDH13 - and protein - cadherin - do?

A
  • Slows axon growth when neurons change structure/type
  • Negative regulation - helping energy conservation and speeds up differentiation
  • Slows natural death of vascular cells during stressful periods (apoptosis)
  • This is a natural defence against atherosclerosis and harmful stress
  • Low activity = cancer if unchecked
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43
Q

In criminals how is the gene CDH13 different?

A
  • High activity
  • Interrupts the build of neural networks
  • Childhood stress/trauma methylates the gene (switches off)
  • Networks less developed and less connected
  • Psychopaths undeveloped internal working models so relationships are effected
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44
Q

What is the mirror neuron theory?

A
  • Brain cells fire when doing action or when you see someone else do the action
  • Teaching empathy and metarepresentation to see others perspectives
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45
Q

Who investigated the mirror neuron theory for criminals?

A
  • Keysers et al.
  • Found empathy was sporadic for psychopaths
  • When forced to empathise the mirror neurons are activation
  • However, in normal peoples brains, this empathy is always switched on
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46
Q

What’s included in the monoamine neurotransmitter group?

A
  • Serotonin
  • Noradrenaline
  • Dopamine
  • All excitatory
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47
Q

Explain the monoamine hypothesis

A
  • Excitatory neurotransmitters broken down by enzyme MAO-A
  • The production of this is controlled by the gene MAOA
  • If lacking you’re unable to reduce levels of monoamines so more AP fired and slower to return to normal
  • Acute response and unable to control emotions
  • MAOA found on X chromosome and is dominant
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48
Q

Why does the monoamine hypothesis suggest more men should be psychopaths?

A
  • Criminality due to dysfunctioning MAOA gene
  • MAOA gene found on the X chromosome and is dominant
  • Women inherit 2 X’s so less chance of dysfunction
  • Men inherit 1 so increased risk of defect
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49
Q

What is the aim of Brunner’s study?

A
  • Study of violence in a family with genetic abnormality
  • Explain large family behaviours where males affected by syndrome of borderline mental retardation and abnormal violent behaviour
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50
Q

Which members were included in Brunner’s study?

A
  • Males of a family
  • Impulsive
  • Aggressive
  • Arson
  • Attempted rape
  • Exhibitionism
51
Q

What method did Brunner use?

A
  • Clinical exam of male family members compared to normal family members
  • Examined behaviours
  • Clinical Examination
  • DNA analysis
52
Q

What behaviours did Brunner examine?

A
  • Repeated episodes of aggression out of proportion with provocation
  • Sleep disturbances and night terrors
  • Inappropriate sexual behaviours
  • Arson
53
Q

What clinical exams did Brunner do?

A
  • All 9 affected males classified as mentally retarded - only 1 finished primary education. (IQ 85)
  • All unaffected were educated and employed
  • All females including carriers appear normal
54
Q

What DNA analysis did Brunner do?

A
  • Urine samples over 24 hours
  • All affected males show genetic mutations in the genes producing MAO-A
55
Q

What conclusion did Brunner reach?

A
  • MAO-A breaks down excitatory neurotransmitters
  • Eg. Noradrenaline - controlling arousal, dopamine - emotional arousal and serotonin - sleep
  • Low functioning MAO increased the prevalence of these neurotransmitters
  • Causing impulse control to be inhibited, spontaneous and irritable aggression, arousal seeking behaviours.
56
Q

Give some supporting evidence for the genetic causes of criminal behaviour

A
  • Uirkkunen et al. - Compulsive violent criminals have lower serotonin than planned criminals
  • Beggard et al. - Serotonergic dysfunction linked to criminal behaviour
57
Q

How did Mendrick et al. investigate genetic explanations?

A
  • Adoption studies
  • 14427 Danish adoptees tested
  • Meta-analysis
58
Q

What did Mendrick et al. find?

A
  • 13.5% criminal with no criminal parents
  • 14.7% with at least 1 criminal adoptive parent
  • 20% with 1 criminal biological parent
  • 24.5% at leat 1 criminal adoptive and 1 biological parent
59
Q

Explain the Mobley defence

A
  • Committed murder due to a small disagreement
  • First to argue it was not his fault but instead his genetic predisposition to seek violence
  • Still convicted
  • Started
60
Q

Evaluated the genetic explanations for criminal behaviours

A
  • Research support - Serotonin linked to criminal behaviour - beggar et al. - Virkkunen et al. - strong external validity and internal validity
  • Research support - Diathesis-stress model - adoptive parents influence criminality - biological criminality effects even if never met - diathesis - Not reductionist - combining bio and env.
  • Real-world applications - MOAO gene however they were still convicted - However, they later confined with the environment and freed - determinist to say no free will - diathesis-stress
  • Application of MAOA and mirror neurons - underdeveloped as retarded - females not as affected due to X chromosome - strong external validity
  • Biologically reductionist - 5-10% contributes to a person exhibiting violent behaviour - Environmental factors more prominent - Diathesis stress - Nature Vs. Nurture - lack pop validity
  • Real-world Applications - Sports - Rugby players should wear head production to prevent - Cost-benefit - Ecological validity - NHS - less in hospital
61
Q

What are the 4 sections following the Eysenck personality test?

A
  1. Meloncholic
  2. Choleric
  3. Sanguine
  4. Phlegmatic
62
Q

What was the idea behind Eysenck’s theory of criminal personality?

A
  • Caused by a fixed criminal personality
  • Biological origin (innate) - prior to biological studies - believing different types of the nervous system
  • Believed must have biological difference then psychological and social stressors to become criminal
63
Q

What did Eysenck propose?

A
  • Personality represented along 2 dimensions (introversion/extraversion) and (neuroticism/stability)
  • Criminal personality = neuroticism/extraversion - unstable, overly anxious and nervous
  • And scores high on measures of psychoticism (cool, unfeeling and prone to aggression)
  • Measured using Eysenck Personality Inventory
64
Q

How did Eysenck link criminal behaviour and nervous system?

A
  • Predicts arousal as overall arousal of nervous system
  • Sympathetic NS overactive causing neuroticism (constant flight and fight) - always on edge
  • Lots of strain on body due to acute HPA axis
  • Extravert - Under-aroused nervous system - constantly seek excitement and increased engagement in risk-taking and dangerous behaviours
  • Neurotic - More reaction sympathetic NS - Unable to react easily and easily upset - overreact to situations of threat
65
Q

What was the third dimension added by Eysenck?

A

Psychoticism/ normality

  • Allowing for high/low criminal risk
66
Q

What was Eysenck’s criminal personality?

A

Neuroticism/Extravert

  • Extravert - constantly seek excitement and increased engagement in risk-taking and dangerous behaviours
  • Neurotic - Unable to react easily and easily upset - overreact to situations of threat
67
Q

What is the role of socialisation in Eysenck’s theory?

A
  • Children taught to delay gratification
  • Becoming socially-oriented through conditioning
  • Criminals developmentally immature (selfish and in need of immediate gratification)
  • High extraversion and neuroticism are difficult to condition
  • Doesn’t learn to respond to antisocial impulses with anxiety
68
Q

Explain the key study of the Marshmallow test

A
  • generally older children likely to resist eating due to socialisation and delayed gratification
  • 4/5 years is the developmental age
  • Controlling the impulse to eat the first marshmallow before receiving the second.
69
Q

Evaluate Eysenck’s EPQ as a psychological explanation for criminal behaviour

A
  • Social desirability issues - Self-report method - crimes look better - Can be caught in lie test with 8 questions to see if the pattern had emerged - Not reliable - lack internal validity - experiment problems with design - extraneous variables - demand characteristics.
  • Hints at the diathesis-stress model - Collaboration of biological, social and psychological factors cause the personality - shown in case studies - research support - gender and cultural bias - not generalised - beta biased - doesn’t work as well on collectivist cultures - Not reductionist and before its time - nervous system it neglects to identify hormones and genes - not fully temporally valid.
  • Strong concurrent validity - Ideas continue to be backed up later - strong temporal validity - Recent studies eg. Marshmallow test - Scientific methods - 3D- adding reliability and external validity
70
Q

What is meant by a cognitive distortion?

A
  • faulty, biased and irrational way of thinking
  • Perceptions of self and world not matching reality
  • Usually negative
  • Thinking accurate
  • Deny or rationalise criminal behaviour
  • two examples - hostile attribution bias or minimalisation
71
Q

What are the two types of cognitive distortions?

A
  • Hostile attribution bias
  • Minimalisation
72
Q

What is hostile attribution bias?

A
  • Violent offenders
  • Tendency to misinterpret or misread others actions, words or expressions as aggressive, provocative or threatening
  • Misreading non-aggressive cues eg. fear=anger
  • Offenders rationalise behaviours by blaming victim
73
Q

What is minimalisation bias?

A
  • Non-violent/sexual offenders
  • Downplay severity
  • Consequences less significant/damaging
  • Help accept the consequence of offences and reduce negative emotions like guilt
  • Normally against rich people like Robin Hood.
74
Q

What is Kohlbergs Heinz Dilemma?

A
  • Moral reasoning
  • Stage theory of moral development
  • higher-stage = more sophisticated, logically consistent and morally mature
  • Progress through stages due to biological maturity and opportunities to discuss and develop ideas
  • Interviewed men and boys about the reasoning behind their moral decisions
  • 3 levels with two stages in each level
75
Q

What is moral reasoning?

A

How an individual draws on own value system to determine whether an action is right or wrong

76
Q

Explain the levels and stages of Kohlberg’s moral development

A
  • preconvential morality - 1. punishment orientation 2. reward orientation
  • Conventional - 1. good boy/girl 2. social order
  • Post-convential - 1. social constract + invidiual rights 2. Conscience.
77
Q

How can criminal behaviours be applied to Heinz’s moral development theory?

A
  • Classified as pre-conventional
  • Do not progress from 1st stage
  • Less mature child-like reasoning
  • Commit crimes if they known they will get away with them or gain rewards
78
Q

What is some research support for the cognitive explanations for criminal behaviours?

A
  • Palmer and Hollin - compare moral reasoning fo 210 fem non-offenders and 112 male NO and 126 convicted offender - Using social-moral reflection measure - questionnaire - offenders less mature moral reasoning
  • Blackburn - correlation due to childhood lacking moral role-play opportunities
79
Q

Evaluate the cognitive explanation as a psychological explanation for criminal behaviour

A
  • Real-world application - treating offending behaviour - to predict and reduce reoffenders - However, ‘after the fact’ theory - External validity - economic validity
  • Biologically reductionist - Only using the stress of the diathesis-stress model - Other theories - Genetics eg. CDH13 and MAOA hypothesis - determinist and lack external validity
  • Kholberg experimentally weak - Beta bias - only interviewed men and boys - Also using interview allowing demand characteristics and desirability bias - Many confounding variables
  • Research support - reducing gender bias - Meta-analysis - a longitudinal study - Palmer and Hollin - Increased reliability and external validity
80
Q

What is the psychological explanation by Sutherland?

A
  • Differential association theory
  • Social learning theory
  • Learn through association and interaction
  • Depend on criminal norms/values of social group
  • Criminality arises due to:
  1. Learning attitudes towards crime
  2. Learning specific criminal acts
  • Personal relevant (role models), long-lasting, salient/extreme and during critical period
81
Q

What two factors causes criminality according to Sutherland?

A
  1. Learning attitudes towards crime
  2. Learning specific criminal acts
82
Q

What research support is there for the differential association theory?

A
  • Osborne and West - father with criminal conviction - 40% sons criminal by 18 compared to 13% with non-criminal father
  • Akers et al. - survey 2,500 adolescents in US looking at peer pressure for drink or drugs.
83
Q

Evaluate the differential association theory as a psychological explanation for criminal behaviour

A
  • Correlation not causation - Biologically reductionist - genetics like MAOA and CDH13 - Only studying one variable - Nurture over nature - no diathesis stress - not reliable
  • Real-world applications - Combatting criminality through adapting learning environments - Blaming social factors and not the individual - bio reductionist - rationalising and excusing the behaviour - realistic solutions - eco validity - less reoffending
  • Research support not fully valid - Osborne and west - beta bias - only sons and fathers studied - Akers et al. - cultural bias - only US - not looking specifically at criminal behaviour - also used a survey - desirability bias and demand characteristics- more reliable but confounding variables - not externally valid - correlation not causation
84
Q

Who invented the psychodynamic approach?

A
  • Freud (ID, ego and superego)
  • Not specifically for offending behaviour
  • Couldn’t adapt as Freud was dead
85
Q

Who was influenced by Freud?

A
  • Bowlby
  • Belief that unconscious conflicts (innate drive) rooted in early childhood and determined by interactions with parents drive future offending behaviours
86
Q

What are the two psychodynamic explanations for criminal behaviour?

A
  • Inadequate superego
  • Maternal deprivation theory
87
Q

When would an inadequate superego be developed?

A
  • End of phallic stage
  • To resolve oedipus and elxctra complex
  • Internalise superego of same-sex parents
  • Working on morality principle
  • Punish ego with guilt and reward with pride
88
Q

What research support it there for the psychodynamic approach?

A
  • Blackburn
  • If superego is deficient or inadequate offending behaviour is inevitable
  • ID had free rein and isn’t properly controlled
89
Q

What are the three types of inadequate superegos?

A
  • Weak/undeveloped (petty crime)
  • Deviant (guilty from wrong thing)
  • Over harsh/over developed (self punishment)
90
Q

What is a weak/underdeveloped superego?

A
  • Same-sex parent absent
  • Can not internalise/identify with morality
  • More offending as little control over ant-social behaviour to gratify ID impulses
91
Q

What is a deviant superego?

A
  • If superego internalised is immoral or deviant
  • Child won’t associate wrong doing with guilt
92
Q

What is the over-harsh / overdeveloped superego?

A
  • Child internalises superego of very strict same-sex parent
  • Individual crippled with guilt and anxiety
  • Unconsciously drive to offend with the wish of being caught so superego is satisfied
  • need to be punished to reduce guilt
93
Q

What is the maternal deprivation theory?

A
  • Bowlby
  • Reflecting adult relationships on mother relationship
  • Monotrophy
  • Critical periods 2.5 years - irreversible consequences
  • Affectionless psychopath personality type - lack guilt, empathy and strong emotions
  • Likely to re-offend
  • Orphanage experiment - parent criminals - 44 theives study
94
Q

Evaluate the psychodynamic approach as a psychological explanation for criminal behaviour

A
  • Lack external validity - no specific studies - not measurable - can not test for ID, ego or superego - Adapting freudian ideas by Blackburn but didn’t experiment/prove - not reliable
  • Unethical - to combat over harsh developing different ways to control and punish - risk of abuse or to do the opposite and using ‘over-easy’ treatment like educational programs - eco validity - therapy to reduce reoffending
  • Real world application- Reduce divorce rates - to reduce offences - eco validity - 2018 ‘troubled family’ initiative - following single parents - often single mothers - preconceived bias - ethical - protection from harm - gender bias - not generalised
  • psychic determinism - predetermined to do bad - generalised to all single-parent families - no diathesis stress used - bio reductionist
95
Q

What is custodial sentencing?

A

Convicted offenders punished by serving time in prison or similar eg. youth offenders institute or psychiatic hospital

96
Q

What are the 4 aims of custodial sentencing?

A
  1. Deterrence - scare other individuals - operant conditioning and vicarious punishment
  2. Incapacitation - protection of public
  3. Retribution - revenge making offender suffer proportionally to crime
  4. Rehabilitation - better person through education or therapy
97
Q

Give two examples of awful prison environments

A
  • Brixton - drugs - 20% tested positive in random testing
  • Wandsworth - demeaning, unsafe and below decent
98
Q

Give examples of alternative institutes to the common prisons

A
  • Only 2 in UK
  • Lancaster farm - community-based
  • Gardens, education blocks, sports
  • Integrate with society eg. primary school visits or elderly volunteering
  • Democratic system
  • Used as a last resort prison - 3 moves
  • 2/3 prisoners leave within 5 years
99
Q

Where was Lancaster farm based off?

A

Halden prison in Norway

  • Community prison
  • Family stay on weekends in separate flats
  • Long-term offenders
100
Q

What are some negative psychological effects of custodial sentencing?

A
  • Stress and depression (raised self-harm and suicide)
  • Institutionalisation
  • Prisonisation - adopting a culture of prison
  • Overcrowding and lack of privacy
  • Deinvididualisation - identify as a prisoner - zimbardo
  • Effects pf family - inconsistent role models, single parent
  • Labelling - a permanent record
101
Q

What are some positive psychological effects of custodial sentencing?

A
  • Uncommon
  • Opportunities
  • treatment
  • rehabilitation
  • remorse
102
Q

What are some statistics about custodial sentencing?

A
  • Criminal parent - 6 times more likely to offend
  • 60% of prisoners suffer brain injury - whereas 0.05% general public
  • 67% recidivism rates if under 18 (education disrupted)
  • 46% adults
  • Cost of re-offending £9.5 billion per year
103
Q

What is the Norway Model?

A
  • Eg. Halden prison
  • Lowest recidivism rates in world - 20%
  • More open with no restrictions on outdoor
  • Community-based
  • Emphasis on rehabilitation and gaining skills
104
Q

Evaluate custodial sentencing as a behaviour modification

A
  • Biologically reductionist - 60% have brain trauma compared to 0.05% in the general public - vicarious reinforcement - when the released environment will mean reconviction rates will increase - diathesis-stress model should be used - nature vs nurture
  • Lack real-world applications - Wandsworth is demeaning, unsafe and below decent. It has many corrupt officers - Common violence and rate places psychological pressure and issues on prisoners - Long-term more harmful - unethical - lack eco validity and external validity
  • Unethical - Protection from harm - increased suicide rates - individualisation means prisoners identify as a criminal - application of Zimbardo - don’t meet aims
  • Lack ecological validity - 46% and 67% reconviction rates costing £9.5 billion - If criminality is fixed (brian injury 60%) then it would be impossible to rehabilitate - Costing the government and the taxpayer
105
Q

What is a token economy as a behaviour modification technique?

A
  • Reinforce obedient behaviours so good continues
  • Punish disobediently - unlike SZ
  • Principles of operant conditioning
  • Effective management and monitoring during sentence
  • Must be immediate
  • Repetition associated between actions and rewards
  • Establish rewards before the start (TV time, call to family)
  • Selective reinforcement - all in contact with offender follows same regime
106
Q

How have conjugal visits been associated with a token economy and improved prison conditions?

A
  • Scedualled visits in private usually spouse also sex workers
  • Legal in 6 states in America
  • Illegal in UK (Holland and Norway allow flats for whole family)
  • Shown to reduce sexual and physical violence - D’Alessio
107
Q

What are some employment opportunities within prisons?

A
  • Business bid to get prisoners to work - learn skills for cheap
  • ‘Slave Labour’ workforce - below minimum wage
  • £10 for 40hr week (£237.60 cheaper than mini)
  • Eg. Speedy Hire closed 37 depots and used prisoners
108
Q

Explain the key study by Cohen and Filipczak

A
  • Token economy groups showed more desirable behaviour and less recidivism after 2 years
  • After.3 years rates back to national statistic
  • Not long-term solution
109
Q

What did Blackburn investigate for token economies?

A
  • Little rebhabillitive value
  • Positive effects lost when released
  • Law-abiding behaviours less rewarding than breaking law for group status
110
Q

What did Field investigate for token economies?

A
  • Rewards and frequency of rewards must be tailored to individual
  • Youth offending setting - more positive when immediate and frequent
  • Mobile apps can now be used for immediate rewards and signing off for proof of completition
111
Q

Evaluate the token economy as a behavioural modification technique

A
  • Applications - unethical - Unlike in SZ punishment is used - is this unethical - biologically reductionist - 60% have brain traumas - Aimed at retribution - Protection from harm - not helping to rehabilitate
  • Lack of ecological validity - Local unemployment reduced as prisoners human rights are suspended for no minimum wage is enforced- Eg. South Wales £3 a day for prison workers - companies also don’t need to pay rent so overhead is reduced - Speedy Hire closed 37 depots - Rehabilitation impossible as more employment opportunities within the prison - increase reconviction rates - protection from harm
  • Research support- works in the short term - Cohen and Filipczak - 2 years it was beneficial- Lack of external validity - scrapped as part of the patrol system as long term effects not beneficial. - adaptations made
112
Q

What dod Novaco investigate?

A
  • Humanist
  • Cognitive factors triggering emotional arousal (anger) that generally precedes aggressive acts
  • Positive reinforce becoming angry as individuals feel control in situations
  • Anger Management CBT developed
113
Q

What is the aim of anger management?

A
  • Recognise triggers develop techniques to bring conflict-resolution without violence
  • Change and manage
  • Through CBT
114
Q

How does anger management work for criminals?

A
  • As part of custodial sentence and probation period after leaving
  • Conducted in small groups for 10 sessions so role-plays can be performed
  • Based on stress-inoculation approach - vaccincation against future infections
115
Q

What are the stages of anger management?

A
  1. Cognitive preparation - recognise triggers and challenge irrational interpretations
  2. Skill acquisition - techniques and skills to deal with anger-provoking situation
  3. Application practice - applies skills in role-play of situations - positive reinforcement - later apply real-world setting
116
Q

What is the anger arousal cycle?

A
  • Harper 2004 - Anger management application
  • HPA axis stops being calm as constant ForF and stress hormones
  • This means less rest and digest
  • When angry less able to communicate and reason which reduces the quality of judgement
  • Show diagram and explain the process of returning after a crisis
117
Q

Evaluate anger management as a behavioural modification technique

A
  • Ethical - after 10 sessions - 76% better than other treatment methods- Protection from harm caused by custodial - depression, suicide and rape - reliable, high external validity, cost-benefit
  • Ecological - On NHS, immediately expensive but a lot less than prison - £9.5 billion- Expensive training- Cost-benefit
  • Application CBT - Breathing technique - 686 - Oxytocin released - Biological applied - widely used in multiple treatments eg. SZ - But no HW as a group not individual - Reliable - external Validity - not bio reductionist
  • Research support- Harper 2004 - Anger Arousal Cycle - important to see plateau and recovery - the scientific method - constantly adapting- Concurrent validity - temporal validity
118
Q

What is restorative justice?

A
  • Wachtel and McCold - 2003
  • Humanist (free will based)
  • Respectful and not degrading for offender or victim
  • Forming peace circles or circles of understanding
  • Aims - explain the impact of crime, acknowledge the harm caused, ask questions, acceptance of responsibility - active rather than possible involvement
  • Focus on rehabilitation through reconciliation and improving victim’s life eg. PTSD
119
Q

Explain the case study of Woolf Within (Peter Woolf)

A
  • Grown in criminal environment
  • Will Riley victim - experiencing psychological harm PTSD
  • Previously not remorseful
  • When impact explained Peter realised the effect and felt guilty - the victim wanted to help
  • Reduced reoffending by up to half
  • 85% of victims feel a positive experience
120
Q

What is the effect of restorative justice?

A
  • 85% victims feel positive experience
  • Proven to reduce reoffending by up to half
121
Q

Explain the key study by Sherman and Strang

A
  • Meta analysis
  • 4 years across the country
  • Showed restorative justice to be at least as effective as traditional in all cases
  • Compared to prisons who make worse
  • Majority of adults significantly more effective in lowering recidivism rates
  • Lowering PTSD in victims
122
Q

Give an exception to the effectiveness of the restorative justice system

A
  • Psychopaths as no feeling of empathy
  • Bernard Giles
  • Generalising and grouping all victims
  • Feeling stimulated and provoked
  • Receiving pleasure from killing - immature and unsustainable
  • Childish thinking to get away with crimes
123
Q

Evaluate the restorative justice method of behaviour modification

A
  • Best applications of treatment methods - 85% victims see as a positive experience - only one to actively involve victim - PTSD - Reducing reconviction rates - half - psychopaths - ecological aim of rehabilitation reached
  • Ecological validity - Adjudicators only a couple of hours on course for training - equality - prison costs - £9.5 billion - All prisons can use effectively - reduction in reconviction rates - also reduced NHS and CBT treatments for victim - LT - Equally effective between prisons - the only problem is it needs the participation of both parties - protection from harm - ethical - free will
  • Applications- Also used in schools, workplaces and hospitals to reflect nature of crime - All parties involved have a say about punishment - High external validity - very reliable - meta-analysis

A level Psychology (5 decks)

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