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Psychology year 2 > Forensic Psychology > Flashcards

Forensic Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

!! OFFENDER PROFILING !!

A

top down
bottom up

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2
Q

what are the 2 types of offender profiling

A

top down approach
bottom up approach

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3
Q

what is the top down approach described as

A

a qualitative approach to offender profiling due to looking at the overall picture and using typologies

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4
Q

what is the top down approach based on

A

based police experience and case studies rather than psychological theory

in-depth interviews by the FBI with 36 sexually motivated serial killers

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5
Q

what type of crime was the top down approach suitable for

A

suitable for more extreme/unusual crimes
E.G. murder, rape and ritualistic crime

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6
Q

what are the two types of offenders identified in the top down approach

A

organised
disorganised

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7
Q

behaviour towards victim (ORGANISED)

A

victim targeted
controls conversation

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8
Q

behaviour towards victim (DISORGANISED)

A

victim detected at random
crime unplanned
avoids conversation

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9
Q

crime scene detail (ORGANISED)

A

weapon absent
body hidden from view
body moved from crime scene
attempts to clean up

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10
Q

crime scene detail (DISORGANISED)

A

weapon present
sexual activity after death
body left in view at crime scene

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11
Q

characteristics of criminal (ORGANISED)

A

high intelligence
socially competent
sexually competent
skilled occupation

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12
Q

characteristics of criminal (DISORGANISED)

A

average intelligence or lower
socially immature
sexually incompetent
poor work history
lives alone
lives close to crime scene

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13
Q

FIRST stage of top down approach

A

DATA ASSIMILATION
data compiled from police reports, post porters, crime scene photos ect.

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14
Q

SECOND stage of top down approach

A

CRIME CLASSIFICATION
profilers decide whether the crime scene is organised or disorganised

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15
Q

THIRD stage of top down approach

A

CRIME RECONSTRUCTION
hypotheses about crime sequence, offender & victim behaviour etc.

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16
Q

FOURTH stage of top down profiling

A

PROFILE GENERATION
offender’s physical, demographic and behavioural

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17
Q

evaluation of top down approach

A

simplistic
particular crimes
issues with sample
lack of evidence

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18
Q

simplistic (TOP DOWN APPROACH)

A

having only 2 categories is very simplistic as it is unlikely that criminals fit neatly into one category

as a result it would be difficult to predict their characteristics

it is likely that there will be more than two types

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19
Q

particular crimes (TOP DOWN APPROACH)

A

is only useful for crime scenes that reveal information about a suspect e.g. rape

it is not useful for crimes that reveal little about the offender e.g. burglary

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20
Q

issues with sample (TOP DOWN APPROACH)

A

the sample of 36 killers is too small and unrepresentative for a whole profiling system to be based on

self report methods were also used

could be unreliable as they are conducted by criminals

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21
Q

lack of evidence (TOP DOWN APPROACH)

A

Canter et al. (2004) analysed 100 murders

found that there was no evidence for the existence of a disorganised type

HOWEVER.. there was some evidence for an organised type

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22
Q

what it the bottom up approach based upon

A

investigative psychology
geographical profiling

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23
Q

investigative psychology

A

uses computer databases and statistical procedures

looks at similarities and differences in patterns between offences and offenders

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24
Q

interpersonal coherence (investigative psychology)

A

the way in which an offender behaves at the scene

how they interact with the victim may indicate how they act in everyday life

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25
Q

significance of time and place (investigative psychology)

A

may indicate where the offender is living if the crimes take place within the same forensic “centre of gravity”

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26
Q

forensic awareness (investigative psychology)

A

focuses on those who have been the focus of police attention before

their behaviour may denote how mindful they are of covering their tracks

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27
Q

geographical profiling

A

Rossmo (1997) stated that an offenders operational base is revealed by the geographical location of their previous crimes

known as crime mapping

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28
Q

circle theory (geographical profiling)

A

Canter and Larkin (1993) proposed two models of offender behaviour

the offending pattern with most likely form a circle around their home and give investigators an idea of their ‘mental maps’, mode of transport etc.

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29
Q

the marauder (geographical profiling)

A

the offender operates in close proximity to their home base

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30
Q

the commuters (geographical profiling)

A

the offender is likely to have travelled a distance away from their usual residence

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31
Q

evaluation of bottom up approach

A

other factors
supporting evidence
comparison to top down
mixed results

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32
Q

other factors (BOTTOM UP APPROACH)

A

there are other factors that need to be taken into account E.G. psychological characteristics

only focussing on location may cause an investigator to miss important information if used by its own

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33
Q

supporting evidence (BOTTOM UP APPROACH)

A

Lundrigan and Canter (2001) examined 120 murder cases involving serial killers

analysis revealed spatial consistency in the behaviour of offenders

the effect was more noticeable for offenders who travelled short distances

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34
Q

comparison to top down (BOTTOM UP APPROACH)

A

bottom up can be used for a variety of crimes

has a wider application for use compared to top down approach

more scientific and objective through its use of evidence

now used in suspect interviews and in court trials

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35
Q

mixed results (BOTTOM UP APPROACH)

A

Copson (1995) surveyed 48 police forces and found that advice provide by the profiler was USEFUL in 83% of cases

only dead to accurate identification of the offender was only 3% accurate

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36
Q

!! BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS !!

A

atavistic form
genetic explanations
neural explanations

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37
Q

who founded the atavistic form

A

Lombroso

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38
Q

what did Lombroso suggest

A

criminals were genetic throwbacks to a primitive sub-species who were biologically different to non-criminals

saw them as savage, untamed and lacking in evolutionary development

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39
Q

Lombroso’s research

A

examined 383 dead criminals’ skulls and 3839 living criminals

concluded that 40% of crimes could be explained by atavistic form

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40
Q

what physical characteristics did Lombroso associate with murders

A

bloodshot eyes
curly hair
long ears

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41
Q

what physical characteristics did Lombroso associate with sexual deviants

A

glinting eyes
swollen fleshy lips
projecting ears

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42
Q

what physical characteristics did Lombroso associate with fraudsters

A

thin lips

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43
Q

evaluation of atavistic form

A

father of modern criminology
racism
causation

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44
Q

father of modern criminology (ATAVISTIC FORM)

A

Lombroso was the first to use a scientific method in classifying criminals

was seen to be the start of modern offender profiling

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45
Q

racism (ATAVISTIC FORM)

A

most of the characteristics described are most commonly found amongst those of African descent

he would therefore be criticised for using a eugenic and scientifically racist theory

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46
Q

causation (ATAVISTIC FORM)

A

poverty or poor nutrition could influence facial and cranial differences rather than delayed evolutionary development

we cannot be sure of the cause of these differences and subsequent criminal activity

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47
Q

genetic explanations

A

candidate genes
twin studies

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48
Q

candidate genes

A

Tiihonen et al (2014) revelled two abnormalities that can be associated with violent crime

MAOA gene - controls dopamine and serotonin
CDH13 - linked to substance abuse

individuals with this combination were 13 times MORE LIKELY to have a history of violent behaviour

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49
Q

twin studies

A

Lange (1930) studies 13 MZ twins and 17 DZ twins where one of twins had spent time in prison

10 of the MZ and 2 DZ twins had a second twin who had also spent time in prison

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50
Q

neural explanations

A

prefrontal cortex
mirror neurons

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51
Q

prefrontal cortex

A

those who experience antisocial personality disorder show reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex - part of the brain that regulates emotional behaviour

Raine (2000) found 11% reduction in the volume of grey matter in PFC of people with ADP compared to control groups

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52
Q

mirror neurons

A

Keysers (2011) found that only when criminals were asked to empathise did their empathy reactions activate

suggests that criminals do experience empathy, it is just not an automatic response

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53
Q

evaluation of genetic and neural explanations

A

diathesis stress model
determinism
validity

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54
Q

diathesis stress model (GENETIC AND NEURAL EXPLANATIONS)

A

Mednick (1984) studies 14,427 Danish adoptees

found that a percentage of adoptees who had criminal convictions was highest if they had both adoptive and biological adoptive parents with convictions

suggests BOTH genetic and environmental causes are important

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55
Q

determinism (GENETIC AND NEURAL EXPLANATIONS)

A

biological explanation had implications for the legal system

negotiates free will and gives a defence to those who claim to have a ‘criminal gene’

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56
Q

validity (GENETIC AND NEURAL EXPLANATIONS)

A

early twin studies are often unreliable

whether twins were MZ or DZ was based on appearance rather than DNA testing

57
Q

PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS

A

Eysenck
cognitive explanations
differential association theory
psychodynamic explanations

58
Q

Eysenck’s theory

A

biological basis for personality
criminal personality

extraversion
neuroticism
psychoticism

59
Q

biological basis for personality

A

according to Eysenck out personality traits are determined by our nervous systems

60
Q

extraverts

A

UNDERachieve nervous system

constantly seek excitement

likely to engage in risk-taking behaviours

61
Q

neurotic individuals

A

OVERactive nervous system

more anxious, touchy and a largely unstable personality

behaviour is difficult to predict

62
Q

criminal personality

A

made up of high scores on extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism

Eysenck said criminal behaviour is developmentally immature, selfish and concerned with immediate gratification

children are usually taught delayed gratification through socialisation but criminals may not have learnt this

63
Q

evaluation of Eysenck’s theory

A

Farrington et al
reductionist
culture bias

64
Q

Farrington et al, 1982 (EYESENCK’S THEORY)

A

reviewed studies and found criminals scored highly on psychoticism but NOT extraversion and neuroticism

EEGs show little difference for cortical arousal between extraverts and introverts

65
Q

reductionist (EYESENCK’S THEORY)

A

assigning criminals to a particular personality type is too simple

recent theories suggest that personality has further dimensions such as openness
E.G. Digman’s Five Factor Model

66
Q

culture bias (EYESENCK’S THEORY)

A

Bartol & Holanchock (1979) found that Hispanic and African-American offenders scored LOWER in extraversion than a control group

suggests Eysenck’s theory lacks generalisability to other cultures

67
Q

cognitive explanations

A

preconventional morality (level 1)
conventional morality (level 2)
post conventional morality (level 3)

68
Q

preconventional morality

A

stage 1 - punishment orientation
rules are obeyed to AVOID punishment

stage 2 - instrumental orientation
rules are obeyed for PERSONAL GAIN

69
Q

conventional morality

A

stage 3 - ‘good boy’ or ‘good girl’ orientation
rules are obeyed for APPROVAL

stage 4 - maintenance of social order
rules are obeyed to MAINTAIN social order

70
Q

post conventional morality

A

stage 5 - morality of contact and individual rights
rules are obeyed if they DON’T INFRINGE THE RIGHTS OF OTHERS, otherwise they are challenged

stage 6 - morality of conscience
rules are established by the INDIVIDUAL according to their own set of ethical principles

71
Q

level of moral reasoning

A

criminals have a lower level of moral reasoning

do not process from the pre-conventional level of moral reasoning

seek to avoid punishment and gain rewards = child-like reasoning

72
Q

cognitive distortions

A

hostile attribution bias
minimalisation

73
Q

hostile attribution bias

A

some violent offenders will misinterpret the actions of others as aggressive or confrontational when they are not

Schononberg and Justye (2014) presented 55 violent offenders with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions

when compared with control group, offenders were MORE likely to perceive the images as angry/hostile

74
Q

minimalisation

A

offenders with downplay the seriousness of their offences

usually found in sexual offenders

Barbaree (1991) 26 convicted rapists
54% denied they had committed the offence
40% minimised the harm they had caused the victim

75
Q

evaluation of cognitive explanations

A

culture bias
individual differences
real world application

76
Q

culture bias (COGNITIVE EXPLANATIONS)

A

Gibbs (1979) claimed that the post-conventional stage should be abandoned as it contains a western cultural bias

proposed two levels of moral reasoning (mature and immature)

similar to Piaget’s theory which suggests criminal moral reasoning is self-centred and ego-centric

77
Q

individual differences (COGNITIVE EXPLANATIONS)

A

Langdon et al (2010) believed that intelligence might be a better predictor of criminality

pre-conventional associated with robbery
impulsive crimes E.G. assault are not associated with any type of reasoning

level of moral reasoning may depend of the KIND of offence committed

78
Q

real world application (COGNITIVE EXPLANATIONS)

A

used in treating offenders such as anger management

encourages offenders to acknowledge their crimes and change their distorted views

reduction in minimisation bias from therapy has been correlated with a reduced risk of reoffending

79
Q

!! PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATION !!

A

differential association theory
psychodynamic

80
Q

what is the differential association theory

A

when individuals learn criminal behaviour through interactions with others

learn values, attitudes, techniques and motives for criminal behaviours through observation and imitation

81
Q

what are the two parts of the differential association theory

A

learned attitudes towards crime
learning criminal acts

82
Q

learned attitudes towards crime

A

if the number of pro-criminal attitudes a person acquires outweighs the number of anti-criminal attitudes they will go on to offend

83
Q

learning criminal acts

A

criminals may learn how to carry out crimes

helps to explain reoffending

inmates are able to learn specific techniques from others

84
Q

evaluation of differential association theory

A

deterministic
generalisability
Mednick adoption study

85
Q

deterministic (DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY)

A

many people who have criminal experiences do NOT go on to commit crimes

the theory does not takes into account individual differences

could cause stereotyping of people based on their family history

86
Q

generalisability (DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY)

A

cannot be applied to different types of criminal E.G. working class criminals

explains why some crimes are more common amongst each class E.G. burglary in working class - as they share common normal and values

87
Q

Mednick adoption study

A

Mednick (1984) studies 14,427 Danish adoptees

found that a percentage of adoptees who had criminal convictions was highest if they had both adoptive and biological adoptive parents with convictions

suggests BOTH genetic and environmental causes are important

88
Q

what are the two parts of psychodynamic explanations

A

inadequate superego
maternal deprivation theory

89
Q

inadequate superego

A

based on Freud’s theories

the superego punishes the ego with feelings of guilt and rewards it with feelings of pride

in criminals the superego is weak of deficient

90
Q

what are the 3 types of inadequate superego

A

weak superego
deviant superego
over-harsh superego

91
Q

weak superego

A

caused by an absent same sex parent in the phallic stage

the child cannot identify and internalise a superego

92
Q

deviant superego

A

caused by the internalisation of an immoral superego from deviant parents

93
Q

over-harsh superego

A

causes the person to become anxious and guilty by nature

causes them to unconsciously seek punishment and do so by committing criminal acts

94
Q

maternal deprivation theory

A

Bowlby proposed that the relationship we have with our mother acts as a prototype for all future relationships

if disrupted it can result in ‘affectionless psychopathy’

95
Q

what is affectionless psychopathy

A

where it is difficult to show empathy or have feelings for others

96
Q

what did Bowlby find in his 44 thieves study

A

14 of them showed affectionless psychopathy
12/14 had prolonged separation from mothers

97
Q

evaluation of psychodynamic explanations

A

falsifiability
correlations
methodological issues

98
Q

falsifiability (PSYCHODYNAMIC EXPLANATIONS)

A

lack falsifiability as we cannot empirical test abstract concepts such as the superego

it is a ‘pseudoscientific’ theory

not useful in understanding criminal behaviour

99
Q

correlations (PSYCHODYNAMIC EXPLANATIONS)

A

correlational research such as Bowlby’s does not determine causation

if those with a deviant parent go on to offend themselves

could be due to genetics rather than a deviant superego

100
Q

methodological issues (PSYCHODYNAMIC EXPLANATIONS)

A

Bowlby has been accused to influencing the responses of his ppts

demonstrates researcher bias

he failed to distinguish between privation and deprivation

privation seems to have more damaging effects than deprivation

101
Q

!! DEALING WITH OFFENDING BEHAVIOUR !!

A

custodial sentencing
behaviour modification
anger management
restorative justice

102
Q

what is recidivism

A

the tendency to reoffend after release from prison

Norway has a much lower rate than the UK as they adopt a more open prison style focussed on rehabilitation

103
Q

four aims of custodial sentencing

A

deterrence
incapacitation
retribution
rehabilitation

104
Q

deterrence

A

to put people off from offending

to deter criminals from committing offences again (conditioning)

105
Q

incapacitation

A

offenders are incarcerated to protect the public

106
Q

retribution

A

prison is used as a form of punishment where the sentence matches the severity of the crime

107
Q

rehabilitation

A

prison helps to re-educate, as well as offer treatments to criminals (E.G. drug treatments) in order for them to reintegrate back into society

108
Q

what are the three psychological effects of custodial sentencing

A

stress and depression
institutionalisation
prisonisation

109
Q

stress and depression

A

prisoners are more likely to self-harm/commit suicide in prison than the general population

110
Q

institutionalisation

A

offenders struggle to adapt back to the outside world as they have become used to the norms and values of a prison environment

111
Q

prisonisation

A

prisoners adopt an ‘inmate code’

normally seen to be unacceptable behaviours in societies but are rewarded inside prison

112
Q

evaluation of custodial sentencing

A

research support
individual differences
universities of crime

113
Q

research support (CUSTODIAL SENTENCING)

A

the Prison Reform Trust (2014)
25% of females
15% of men
reported symptoms of psychosis

suggests that prison is not helpful in rehabilitating these offenders

114
Q

individual differences (CUSTODIAL SENTENCING)

A

not all offenders will react to prison in the same way
they have different sentences, criminal backgrounds and psychological difficulties

means it is difficult to make generalisations about how prisons affect prisoners

115
Q

universities of crime (CUSTODIAL SENTENCING)

A

prison can act as a tool for educating and sharing skills for younger inmates

more experienced offenders share their techniques

prevents rehabilitation of younger prisoners

116
Q

behaviour modification

A

based on the principles of operant conditioning

uses a TOKEN ECONOMY SYSTEM to reinforce desirable behaviours

117
Q

how does the token economy system work

A

a token is given when a prisoner performs a desirable behaviour

can later be exchanged for a reward

the token is a secondary reinforcer as they are valued by the prisoner are valued by the prisoner due to their association with the reward

118
Q

steps to changing behaviour

A
  1. desirable behaviour identified
  2. broken down in steps
  3. baseline measure established
  4. all much follow the regime
  5. could be one particular prisoner
  6. overseen by prison officials
119
Q

evaluation of behaviour modification

A

outside value
individual differences
ethical issues

120
Q

outside value (BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION)

A

Cohen and Filipczack (1971) found that after 2 years token economy groups were LESS likely to reoffend than control groups

after 3 years rates of recidivism reflected national statistics

most likely because the prisoners were no longer receiving ‘rewards’ for their desirable behaviour

121
Q

individual differences (BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION)

A

Field (2004) found that some young offenders respond more POSITIVELY when rewards were more immediate

tailoring programmes on an individual basis would be difficult to implement due to staffing issues in prisons

122
Q

ethical issues (BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION)

A

offenders are not always given the option as to whether they WANT TO TAKE PART

withdrawal of rewards could also be seen as ethically questionable

123
Q

what is anger management

A

a form of cognitive behaviour therapy

offenders are taught to recognise their triggers and apply cognitive techniques that deal with the situation in a non aggressive manner

124
Q

stages of anger management

A
  1. cognitive preparation
  2. skill acquisition
  3. application practice
125
Q

cognitive preparation

A

the offender reflects on their past experiences of anger and triggers

therapist will identify and responses that are irrational and will redefine these as non-threatening to the individual

126
Q

skill acquisition

A

offenders are taught skills to use when dealing with situations that usually cause anger

E.G.
cognitive = positive self-talk
behavioural = assertiveness training
physiological = meditation

127
Q

application practice

A

therapist and offender act out scenarios that would normally cause the criminal to become angry

gives the criminals a chance to practice a new skills

therapist uses positive reinforcement to reward the new behavioural response

128
Q

evaluation of anger management

A

long term effectiveness
comparison
expensive

129
Q

long term effectiveness (ANGER MANAGEMENT)

A

Blackburn (1993) states there is little evidence that anger management reduces recidivism in the long term

probably due to the role playing now involving all possible triggers we can find in a real life scenario

130
Q

comparison (ANGER MANAGEMENT)

A

anger management seeks to tackle the actual causes of offending unlike behaviour modification

should be more effective in lowering recidivism

131
Q

expensive (ANGER MANAGEMENT)

A

requires highly trained and experienced specialists who are expensive to employ

prisons are usually underfunded and may not have the resources to access these professionals

offenders need motivation and commitment to take part

132
Q

what is restorative justice

A

used as a form of rehabilitation for the offender and as a process of healing for the victims

can be used as an alternative to prisons or in addition to community service

133
Q

examples of restorative justice

A

face to face with the victim

making a financial payment to the victim

repairing damaged property

134
Q

possible features of face to face restorative justice

A

offender accepting responsibility and acknowledging the consequences of their actions

an opportunity to explain the impact of their crime (impact statements)

a chance for victims to ask questions

active rather than passive involvement of both parties

135
Q

evaluation of restorative justice

A

remorse
flexible
soft punishment

136
Q

remorse (RESTORATIVE JUSTICE)

A

is it possible the offender only signs up as a way of reducing their sentence or to avoid prison

do not show genuine remorse

the victim may also only be interested in seeking revenge rather than closure

137
Q

flexible (RESTORATIVE JUSTICE)

A

can be used in a flexible manner online custodian sentencing

able to adapt to suit the needs of each individual situation

makes it difficult to draw conclusions about its effectiveness

138
Q

soft punishment (RESTORATIVE JUSTICE)

A

many members of the public see RJ as a soft option for dealing with offenders

politicians are not keen to promote its use in fear of using public support who prefer criminals to fact retribution for their crimes

Psychology year 2 (3 decks)

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