forensic psychology Flashcards
what is offender profiling?
- An investigative tool employed the police when solving crimes, to narrow the list of likely suspects
professional profilers will often be called on to work alongside the police, especially when it comes to high profile cases - methods can vary but the main methods involve careful scrutiny of the crime scene and analysis of other evidence (including witness reports)
all of this is done to get an idea of the offender (age, background, occupation)
what is the American approach
The top down approach originated in the US as a result of the work carried out by the FBI in the 1970s
they carried out research adn produced data from 36 sexual serial offenders, including ted bundy and charles manson
they determined that each characteristic could be determined inot organsied and disorganised and that from this, we can predict other characteristics which then allows us to find the offender
offender profilers who use the top down approach with collect details about the murder (characteristics of the murderer, the crime scene etc) and then decide on the category that fits the data the best
what is organised and disorganised types of offenders
this is based around the idea that experienced offenders will often have signature “ways of working” (their modus operandi) which generally correlate with a particular set of characteristics
organised offenders show evidence of having planned the crime in advance - the victim is deliberately targeted and it is often a much more skilled act
disorganised offenders are often spontaneous and have little lanning which causes there to be evidence left around
what are the stages of Constructing a FBI profile data
data assimilation - the profilers review the evidence (crime scene photographs, pathology reports etc)
crime scene classification - either organised or disorganised
crime reconstruction - hypothesis in terms of sequence of events, behaviour of victims etc
profile generation - hypotheses related to the likely offender e.g demographic background, physical characteristics, behaviour etc
what is the aim of the bottom up approach
- The aim is to generate a picture of the offender (characteristics, routine behaviour, social background etc) through analysis of the crime scene
- unlike the top down approach it does not begin with fixed typologies
what are the key features of the bottom up approach?
investigative psychology
geographical profiling
what is investigative psychology
patterns that occur or co - exist across crime scenes are used to generate data about the offender. It is based on the psychological theory of matching behavioural patterns to generate a database that acts as a baseline for comparison. specific details can be compared to reveal characteristics of the offender
what are the characteristics that may reveal an offender in the bottom up approach
- interpersonal coherence- how the offender interacts with the
- crime scene & victim may reflect their everyday behaviour
significance of time and place - geographical profiling
- crime scene & victim may reflect their everyday behaviour
- forensic awareness - behaviour may be indicative of previous criminal experience
what is routine activity theory?
- cohen and Felson (1979)
- crimes occur when 3 circumstances coincide:
- a motivated offender
- a suitable (and vulnerable) victim
- absence of a capable guardian
- a motivated offender
- criminal offences are an extension of the offenders normal activities, so will occur in places the offender makes regular use of
routine activity theory relies on the same rational choice methodology as situational crime prevention techniques
what are the criticisms of routine activity theory?
they may not use the same rationale as the person implementing the security measures. they may not even be aware of the situational crime prevention technique put into effect. they may be under the influence of drugs or alcohol or for whatever reason they may simply not care about the security measures
what is smallest space analysis?
- this is a statistical technique developed by Canter
- data about many crime scenes and offender characteristics are
- correlated so that most common connections can be identified
-Salfati and Canter (1999) analysed the co-occurrence of 48 crime scenes and offender characteristics from 82 murders and identified 3 underlying themes:- instrumental opportunistic: “instrumental” refers to using the murder to obtain something or accomplish a goal , “opportunistic” refers to the offender taking the easiest opportunities
- instrumental cognitive: a particular concern about being detected and therefore more planned
- expressive impulsive: uncontrolled, in the heat of strong emotions, may feel provoked by victim
what is geographical profiling?
- Rossmo (1997) stated that the geographical location of their previous reveals an offender’s operational base of possible future offences.
- uses the location of linked crimes to make inferences of the the likely home (crime mapping) based on the principle of spatial consistency that people commit crimes in a limited geographical space
- used in conjunction with psychological theory e.g investigative psychology to create hypotheses about their modus operandi (MO)
what is mental maps?
- individuals construct mental maps of the areas they know
assumption is that offenders will restrict their “work” to familiar geographical locations, so the spatial pattern of behaviour - provides a “centre of gravity” for investigators to locate their base
- These are not absolutely accurate. they embody the person’s experience and perspective on the area
what is a marauder?
the offender operates in close proximity to their home base
what is a commuter?
the offender is likely to have travelled a distance away from their usual residence
why is knowing whether the offender is a marauder or commuter important?
such spatial decision making can help investigators make insights about the nature of the crime e.g opportunistic as well as features of the offender e.g mode of transport favoured, employment, approximate age
what is criminal geographical targeting (CGT)?
- This is a computerised system developed by Kim Rosso and based on their own formula
- the formula produces a three- dimensional map displaying spatial data related to time, distance and movement to and from crime scenes
- This map is called a jeopardy surface. The different colours indicate likely closeness to crime scene
weakness of the bottom up approach: other factors are important
- location is important, but there are other factors that need to be taken into account, such as their psychological characteristics
-concentrating on location may cause an investigator to miss important information if used in isolation
strength of the bottom up approach: evidence supporting geographical profiling
- Lundrigan and Canter (2001) collated information from 120 murder cases involving serial killers in the USA.
- Analysis revealed spatial consistency in the behaviour of the offenders
- The effect was more noticeable for offenders who travelled short distances (marauders)
- this supports Canter’s claim that capital information is a key factor in determining the base of an offender
strength of the bottom up approach: based on research and statistical likelihood
- It is based heavily on research and statistical likelihood. This means that it is seem to be more scientific that top down approach
- this use of statistics and theory has removed intuition of the profiler from the process, which is argued to make it more reliable
weakness of the bottom up approach:
mixed results for profiling
- despite the successes, there have been some significant failures (e.g rachel Nickell) Copstom (1995) surveyed 48 police formed and found that the advice provided but the profiler was useful in 83% of cases, but only in 3% did it lead to accurate identification of the offender
- Kocsis (2002) chemistry students produced more of an accurate profile on a solved murder case than experienced detectives
what are the 3 main biological explanations of crime?
atavistic form
genetic
neural
what did Lombroso’s suggest about criminals?
- criminals were genetic throwbacks - a primitive sub species who were biologically different to non criminals
- He proposed that, as criminal behaviour is innate, an offender is not responsible for their actions
what are the characteristics for criminals according to Lombroso?
characteristics:
- narrow, sloping brow
- strong prominent jaw
- high cheekbones
- facial asymmetry
- dark skin
- existence of extra toes, nipples of fingers
how did Lombroso come to his conclusions about his theory?
- Lombroso meticulously examined the facial and cranial features of hundreds of italian criminals, both dead and alive, and concluded there is an atavistic form
- furthermore, he concluded that these features were key indicators of criminal behaviour
- in all, Lombros examined 383 dead convicts and 3839 living ones
weakness of Lombroso’s theory - sceintific racism
- several critics have drawn attention to the distinct racial undertones within Lombroso’s work
- Many of the “atavistic” features (curly hair, dark skin) are most likely to be found in people of african descent
also, his description of the activistic form as being “uncivilised, primitive, savage” would lend support to many of the eugenic philosophies of the time
-eugenics = a social philosophy advocating the improvement of human genetic traits through the promotion of higher rates of sexual reproduction for people with desired traits or reduced rates of sexual reproduction for people with undesired traits
weakness of Lombroso’s theory - contradictory evidence
[ Goring (1913) compared 3000 criminals and 3000 non criminals and concluded that there was no evidence that offenders are a distinct group with unusual characteristics
- although he did suggest offenders have lower than average intelligence (this is very limited support for Lombroso’s argument that criminals are a sub - species)
weakness of Lombroso’s theory - poor control
Lombros did not compare the criminals to a non criminal control group Without this it is difficult to draw conclusions that a feature is distinctive
also, his sample may have included people with learning difficulties which may have skewed the measurements as some learning difficulties have a physical effect on facial features
strength of Lombroso’s theory - father of modern criminology
- Lombros shifted the emphasis away from a moralistic discourse (e.g offenders were wicked and weak- minded) towards a more scientific and credible realm (evolutionary influences)
- In many ways, Lombroso’s theory heralded the beginning of criminal profiling
genetic explanation support - twin study - Karl Christiansen (1977)
- Studied 3500+ twin pairs
*found concordance rates for offender behaviour - MZ twin (boys) : 35%
- DZ twin (boys) = 13%
evaluation of Karl Christiansen (1977)
- Slightly lower raves for girls
- all twins wère born in Denmark
between 1880-1910 - offender behaviour was based off Of police records
- This data suggests that it is not just the behaviour that might be inherited but the underlying predisposing traits
adoption study support of genetic explanation - ADOPTION- Raymond Crowe (1972)
- found that adopted children whose biological mothers had a criminal record
had a 50% risk of having a criminal record by age 18 - whereas, adopted children whose biological mother did not have a criminal record had a 5% risk
how does the diathesis stress model like to offending rates
- If genetics do have an influence on offending, it seems likely they are moderated by effects of the environment
- A tendency towards offending behaviour may come through the combination of a genetic predisposition and a trigger - eg. being raised in a dysfunctional environment or having criminal role models
What do genetic explanations propose?
- One or more genes predispose individuals to criminal behaviour.
- Suggest that would-be offenders inherit a gene or a combination of genes, that predispose them to commit crime.
Candidate genes - jari et al (2015)
- A genetic analysis of almost 800 Finnish offenders by jari et al
(2015), suggests that genes MAOA and CDH13 may be associated with violent crime.
how does MAOH - monoamine oxidase A relate to offending
- Regulates serotonin in the brain and has been linked to aggressive behaviour.
- Brunner et al (1993) analysed the DNA of these men and found they shared a particular gene that led to low levels of MAOH.
how does CDH13 - cadherin 13 relate to offending
- Has been linked to substance abuse and the attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
supporting evidence for genetic explanation
Evidence from adoption studies supports the findings of twin studies that there must be some element of inheritance in offending behaviour.
* Mednick et al’s (1987) study of 14,000 adoptees found that 15% of sons adopted by a criminal family went on to be criminals compared to 20% of whose biological parents were criminals.
* These findings suggest that inherited genes are a marginally more significant factor than environmental issues.
limitation of the genetic approach- GENETIC EXPLANATIONS DO NOT FIT WITH EVERY TYPE OF CRIME
- Most genetic research into offending has focused on violent or aggressive behaviour rather than non-violent offences such as theft, fraud, drug use and bigamy. It is more difficult to link these latter crimes to biological explanations.
At best, biological explanations may only account for crimes such as those involving violence and psychopathy (a psychopath is a person who lacks empathy with what other people feel and thus are more likely to commit crimes). - There is evidence that this personality trait is inherited. For example, Blonigen et al (2005)
found support for a genetic basis looking at over 600 male and female twins.
limitation of genetic approach - ISSUES WITH DETERMINISM
- An issue with the genetic explanations of crime is how far they can be used to explain, and excuse, offending behaviour.
- It can be argued that the genes a person is born with determine their later behaviour. This was the argument for Steven Mobley whose lawyer excused his crime.
- Criminality cannot be 100% tested with genetics as other psychological and environmental factors tend to affect people on different levels.
WHAT DO NEURAL EXPLANATIONS PROPOSE?
- Evidence suggests that there may be neural difference in the brains of offenders and non- offenders
- they consider the structure of the brain is the reason of the brain is the reason for criminal behaviour
how does the prefrontal cortex link to offending?
- Raine has conducted many studies of the antisocial personality disorder brain, reporting there are several brain-imaging studies demonstrating that they have reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex
- this part of one brain regulates emotional behaviour
- Raine (2000) found an 11% reduction in volume of grey mate in the prefrontal cortex of people with APD compored to controls
what is antisocial personality disorder
is a condition characterised by impulsive, irresponsible and criminal behaviour
Patients with this disorder are more likely to offend.
This could be because of low levels of serotonin and dopamine which are linked to aggression
Scerbo + Raine investigated antisocial adults and found low levels of serotonin
could also be as a result of a damaged frontal lobe
how does serotonin levels link to offending rates
Serotonin - seo et al 2008 suggest that low levels of serotonin may predispose PeopLE to impulsive aggression and criminal behaviour.
Dopamine hyperactivity may enhance this effect.
how do noradrenaline levels link to crime
Noradrenaline - both very high and low levels of noradrenaline have been associated with aggression, violence and criminality.
High levels of noradrenaline are associated with the sympathetic nervous system and the “fight or flight” response, therefore linked to aggression
low levels would stop individuals reacting and perceiving threats
what are mirror neurons?
they are activated in the pre motor cortex and work by mirroring behaviour done by someone else
how to mirror neurons relate to crime?
If the mirror system is functioning incorrectly, then individuals may experience a lack empathy, meaning its more likely that they offend
- Keysen et al (2011) when criminals were asked to empathise with someone on a film experiencing paid, the empathy reaction was activated
suggests that those with APD are cable of empathy but it s switched on an off
strength of the neural explanation- brain scans
-Kandel and Freed (1989) reviewed evidence of frontal lobe damage (including the prefrontal cortex) and anti social behaviour
people with damage to the frontal lobe tended to show impulsive, instable and criminal behaviour, and an inability to learn from their mistakes
limitation of the neural explanation - free will and criminality
- the neural approach is very deterministic and in the court of law it would not be considered as criminality is thought to be a result of free will
limitation of the neural explanation - intervening variables
- the link between APD and neural structure may be complex
- other facotrs may contribute to APD and therefore offending
- Farrington et al (2006) studies a group of men who scored highly on psychpathy , and they had experiences risk factors during their childhood which could have contributed to the developemnt of APD
what is eysenck’s theory of criminal personality ?
Believes that our personality has a genetic basis rather than developing as a result of how others around us respond to us
Personality has a biological explanation. He linked the criminal personality to the central nervous system arguing that our personality is shaped by the activity and arousal of parts of our nervous system - we can’t help our personality
what are the 3 key traits of criminal personality?
- extraversion
-neuroticism
-psychoticism
where do most people fall on the scale?
each of these dimensions are normally distributed, so we would expect about 68% of any population to fall within one standard deviation
According to Eysenck, individuals with a criminal personality will score highly on each of the three traits
how does extraversion link to criminal behaviour
need a lot of stimulation from the environment
can be found through thrill seeking involvement in criminal activit
how does neuroticism link to criminal behaviour
can get stuck in patterns of behaviour to relieve high anxiety levels
high anxiety can also get in the way of attempts to punish criminal or antisocial acts
as a results, don’t learn from previous mistakes
how does psychoticism link to crime
characteristics of these people are directly related to crime
what is the biological cause of extraversion and criminal behaviour
- activation system is part of the brainstem that links to brain and cortex
- RAS regulates the stimuli sent to the cerebral cortex
- extroverts’ cerebral cortex is under-aroused because RAS restrict stimuli
- cerebral cortex is hungry for stimulation = lawless, risky behaviour
- extroverts have a stronger dopamine reward system - they may need to acquire them illegally
what is the biological cause of neuroticism and criminal behaviour
activities in the autonomic nervous system (ANS)
activated during emotion-inducing situations and regulates the activity of the limbic system
ANS becomes over aroused in neurotics
leads to higher levels of violence
what is the biological cause of psychoticism and criminal behaviour
result of an excess of dopaminergic neurons
overproduction of dopamine
less inhibition of impulses in the brain during synaptic transmission
