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approaches Flashcards

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1
Q

what is the biological approach?

A

attempts to explain behaviour as the direct product of interactions within the body.

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2
Q

what are the key assumtions for the biological approach?

A
  • There is a direct correlation between brain activity and cognition
  • Biochemical imbalances can affect behaviour
  • Brain physiology can affect behaviour
  • Behaviour can be inherited (as it is determined by genetic information)
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3
Q

how does the biological explanation link to evolution?

A

In line with Darwin’s theory of evolution, it might also follow that genes form a basis of behaviour in order to survive, as both behaviour and genes appear to be heritable.

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4
Q

how does neurochemistry link to biological approach?

A

Neurochemical imbalances in the brain are often associated with abnormal behaviour – for instance, evidence suggests that imbalances of dopamine (a neurochemical linked with the brain’s natural ‘pleasure’ system) are associated with mood disorders such as depression.

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5
Q

how does the endocrine system link to biological approach?

A

cortisol and adrenaline are key hormones that facilitate the fight or flight response, a key evolutionary survival mechanism whereby the body primes itself for imminent danger

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6
Q

how does the use of animals tests link to biological approach?

A
  • many species are thought to have similar biological makeup to humans so can be generalised to the human species, however there are often ethical concerns
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7
Q

what case study supports the biological approach?

A

Phineas Gage (mid 1800s) after a railroad construction accident drastically changed his physiology by forcing an iron rod through his brain’s frontal lobe.

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8
Q

how do twin / family studies link to the biological approach?

A

Evidence has suggested that if one identical twin (monozygotic [MZ], with near-identical genetic information to the other) develops schizophrenia, there is a roughly 48% chance of the other also developing schizophrenia, whereas this is only about 17% with non-identical twins

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9
Q

how does drug therapy link to the biological approach?

A

behaviour can be manipulated by altering an individual’s biochemistry, a research method that can ultimately lead to developing drug applications to improve health and wellbeing.

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10
Q

what are the strengths of the biological approach?

A
  • Scanning research techniques are useful for investigating the functions of the brain: an organ with obvious involvement in our behaviour that would otherwise be unobservable.
  • The approach presents the strong nature viewpoint of the nature-nurture debate.
  • The experimental methods used (gathering empirical [i.e. observable] evidence) make this approach very scientific.
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11
Q

what are the weaknesses of the biological approach?

A
  • The approach is considered reductionist; complex behaviour, thoughts and emotions are all equally explained by low-level biological mechanisms such as biochemicals and nerve impulses.
  • Biology alone has been unable to explain the phenomenon of consciousness.
    -An extreme biological approach does not account for the wide base of evidence that points to the influence of our environment (e.g. culture and society).
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12
Q

what are the assumptions of the behavioural approach?

A
  • The behaviourist approach is an approach to explaining behaviour which suggests that all behaviour is acquired and maintained through classical and operant conditioning.
  • Hence, only behaviour which can be objectively measured and observed is studied, as demonstrated by Skinner’s Box
  • From a behaviourist perspective, the basic laws governing learning are the same across both non-humans and humans. Therefore, non-human animals can replace humans in behaviourist experimental research
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13
Q

what is positive reinforcement?

A

occurs when we carry out a behavior to receive a reward

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14
Q

what is negative reinforcement?

A

occurs when we carry out a behaviour to avoid
negative consequences

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15
Q

what is classical conditioning?

A

A type of learning which occurs through associations made
between the unconditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus. Before conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces the unconditioned response (UCR). During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the UCS, producing an CR. After conditioning, the neutral stimulus becomes the
conditioned stimulus, producing the conditioned response.

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16
Q

what is operant conditioning?

A

A type of learning where behaviour is acquired and maintained based on its consequences. Reinforcement increases the
likelihood of the observed behaviour being repeated, whilst punishment (an unpleasant consequence of behaviour) decreases
this likelihood.

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17
Q

what was skinner’s box?

A

Skinner demonstrated, using a rat, the mechanisms of positive and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement was shown when the rats pressed down on a lever to receive food as a reward, and subsequently learnt to repeat this action to increase their
rewards. Negative reinforcement was shown when the rat learnt to press down on the lever to avoid the unpleasant consequence of an electric shock.

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18
Q

what are the strengths of behaviourist approach?

A
  • scientific rigour - By focusing on behaviour which is observable
    and can be measured, the behaviorist approach increases the scientific credibility of psychology.
  • real life applications - has led to the development of treatments and therapies for serious mental disorders
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19
Q

what are the disadvantages of the behaviourist approach?

A
  • evironmental determinism- The behaviourist approach sees all behaviour as the product of past reinforcement contingencies, leaving no room for free will or conscious choices
  • Skinner’s box caused considerable physical harm to the rats, breaching the BPS ethical guideline of protection from harm.
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20
Q

what does the cognitive approach assume?

A
  • the mind processes information from our senses
  • between stimulus and response are complex mental processes
  • humans are like data-processing systems
  • the works of a computer and the human and similar
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21
Q

what are the stages of the information- processing model?

A

-encoding, information manipulation, output

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22
Q

what is the computational model?

A

compares with a computer, but focuses more on how we structure the process of reaching the behavioural output

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23
Q

what is the connectionist model?

A

it looks at the mind as a complex network of neurons, which activate in regular configurations that characterize known associations between stimuli.

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24
Q

what is the role of schema?

A

Schemas are like stereotypes, and alter mental processing of incoming information;

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25
Q

what are the strengths of the cognitive approach?

A
  • Models have presented a useful means to help explain internal mental processes
  • The approach provides a strong focus on internal mental processes, which behaviourists before did not.
  • The experimental methods used by the approach are considered scientific.
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26
Q

what are the weaknesses of the cognitive approach?

A
  • It could be argued that cognitive models over-simplify explanations for complex mental processes.
  • The data supporting cognitive theories often come from unrealistic tasks used in laboratory experiments, which questions the ecological validity of theories (i.e., whether they truly represent our normal cognitive patterns).
  • Comparing a human mind to a machine or computer is arguably an unsophisticated analogy.
27
Q

what does the term psychodynamic mean?

A

any theory that emphasizes change and development in the individual. it is also used to describe theories where drive in a central concept

28
Q

according to freud, what is the unconcious?

A

part of the mind that was inaccessible to conscious thought

29
Q

how does the unconcious affect our every day life?

A

freud believed that everyday actions and behaviours are not controlled consciously but are a product of unconscious mind, which reveals itself in slips of the tongue

30
Q

how does an individual use defence mechanisms?

A
  • if an individual is faced with a situation that they are unable to deal with rationally, their defence mechanisms may be triggered
    -these tend to operate unconsciously and work by distorting reality so that anxiety is reduced
    -by using defence mechanisms the individual stops themselves becoming aware of any unpleasant thoughts and feeling associated with the traumatic event
31
Q

how does repression work?

A
  • this refers to the unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts and impulses
  • rather than sitting quietly in the unconscious, these repressed thoughts and impulses continue to influence behaviour without the individual being aware of the reasons behind their behaviour
  • for example, a child who is abused may have no recollection of the abuse, they just know it affects their relationships
32
Q

how does denial work?

A
  • the refusal to accept reality so as to avoid having to deal with any painful feelings that may be associated with that event
  • the person acts as if the traumatic event has not happened, something that those around them may find bizarre
  • for example, an alcoholic may refuse to admit they have a drinking problem even after being arrested several times
33
Q

how does displacement work?

A
  • this involves the redirecting of thoughts and feelings (usually hostile) in situations where the person feels unable to express them in the presence of the person they should be directed towards
  • instead, they may take it out on a helpless victim of object
  • this gives their hostile feelings a route for expression, even though they are misplaces to an innocent person or object
34
Q

what are the features of the id?

A
  • part of the unconscious that contains all the urges and impulses
  • it responds only to what Freud called the pleasure principle (if it feels good, do it), and nothing else.
35
Q

what are the features of the ego?

A
  • what a person is aware of when they think about themselves, and is what they usually try to project toward others.
  • decision-making component of personality.
  • works out realistic ways of satisfying the id’s demands, often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid
  • ego is formed in adolescence
36
Q

what are the features of the superego?

A
  • part of the unconscious that is the voice of conscience
  • can often cause a person to feel guilt in an attempt to give off a conscious and promote the ideal self
  • develop superego around age 7
37
Q

what happens in the oral stage (0-1) and what happens if there is unresolved conflict

A

-main pleasure comes from stimulation in the mouth

-oral fixations and compensations
-developing manipulative and addictive personality

38
Q

what happens in the anal stage (1-3) and what happens if there is unresolved conflict

A

-control of bladder and bowel movements
-potty training

-over controlling and stingy, self hatred, more likely to obey authority (retentive)
-messy, organised, rebellious against authority (expulsive)

39
Q

what happens in the phallic stage (3-5) and what happens if there is unresolved conflict

A
  • discover difference in genitalia
  • boys are more likely to have castration and anxiety and resent their fathers but know father is stronger (oedipus complex )
  • females experience penis envy and the authority that comes with having a penis
  • failure to develop manhood and becomes obsessed with his mother, unsure about sexuality, aggressive towards woman
  • penis envy, inferiority complex
40
Q

what happens in the latency stage (5-12) and what happens if there is unresolved conflict

A
  • libido is suppressed
  • superego strengthens
  • relations with the same sex develop
  • develop as a person

no real conflict

41
Q

what happens in the genital stage 12+ and what happens if there is unresolved conflict

A
  • libido becomes active and become interested in sexual partners
  • balancing the id and superego
  • ego becomes weak and suppresses desire, leading to somewhat perverted behaviours
  • weak ego and superego and can become obsessed with sexual desires
41
Q

what happens in the genital stage 12+ and what happens if there is unresolved conflict

A
  • libido becomes active and become interested in sexual partners
  • balancing the id and superego
  • ego becomes weak and suppresses desire, leading to somewhat perverted behaviours
  • weak ego and superego and can become obsessed with sexual desires
42
Q

strength of psychodynamic approach: explanatory power

A
  • huge influence in psychology and western contemporary thought
  • alongside behaviourist, the approach remained a dominant force in psychology for the first half to the 20th century and has been used to explain a wide range of things like personality, gender, abnormal behaviour and moral development
  • the approach is significantly in drawing attention to connections between childhood and later on in life eg our relationship with our parents
43
Q

weakness of psychodynamic approach: case study method

A
  • although Freud’s observations were detailed and carefully recorded, critics say that it is not possible to make such universal claims about human nature based on studies of such small numbers of individual who were psychologically abnormal
  • freud’s interpretations were highly subjective and it is unlikely that any other research would draw the same conclusion
  • his methods lack scientific rigour
44
Q

weakness of psychodynamic approach: untestable concepts

A
  • Karl popper argued that the psychodynamic approach doesn’t meet the criteria of falsification, in the sense that it is not open to empirical testing ( and the possibility of it being disproved)
  • many of freud’s concepts (such as the id, ego and superego) are said to occur at an unconscious level, making them difficult, if not impossible to test
  • according to popper, this affords psychodynamic theory the status of pseudoscience (fake science) rather than a real science
45
Q

strength of psychodynamic approach: psychic determinism

A
  • freud believed, in relation to human behaviour, that there is no such thing as an accident
  • even something like a slip of the tongue is driven by unconscious forces and has deep symbolic meaning
  • the psychodynamic approach explains all behaviour, even accidents, as determined by unconscious conflicts to are rooted in childhood such that any free will we may think we have is an illusion
46
Q

evaluation: practical application

psychodynamic

A
  • alongside the theoretical basis of the psychodynamic approach, freud also brought a new form of therapy: psychoanalysis
  • it employs a range of techniques designed to access the unconscious such as hypnosis and dream analysis, psychoanalysis is the forerunner of many modern day talking therapies
  • although freudian therapists have claimed success with many patients, suffering for mild neurosis, psychoanalysis has been criticised for being inappropriate, even harmful, for people suffering with more serious conditions (eg schizophrenia)
47
Q

what are the assumptions of the humanistic approach?

A
  • claims that human beings are self determining and have free will.
  • This does not mean that people are not affected by external or internal influences but we are active agents who have the ability to determine our own decisions.
  • Humanistic psychologists therefore reject scientific models that attempt to establish general principles of human behaviour.
  • We are all unique, and psychology should concern itself with the study of subjective experience rather than general laws → This is often referred to as a person-centred approach.
48
Q

what are the two parts to Marlow’s theory?

A

Hierarchy of Needs
Self - actualisation

49
Q

what is involved in the hierarchy of needs?

A
  • The most basic, physiological needs are represented at the bottom, whereas the most advanced needs are at the top.
  • Each level must be fulfilled before a person can move up to a higher need.
  • believed that the more basic the need, the more powerfully it is experienced and the more difficult it is to ignore
50
Q

what are the 5 stages in the hierarchy of needs?

A

-physiological
- safety
-love/belonging
-esteem
-self acualisation

51
Q

what is Deficiency Needs vs. Growth Needs

A
  • The five stages in the Hierarchy of Needs can be split into two sections: Deficiency Needs and Growth Needs.
  • Deficiency needs arise due to deprivation and motivate people when they are unmet.
  • the motivation to fulfil needs will become stronger the longer they are denied e.g the longer a person goes without food, the more hungry they will become.
  • Growth needs do not stem from a lack of something, but rather from a desire to grow as a person.
  • Once these growth needs have been reasonably satisfied, one may be able to reach the highest level called self-actualization.
52
Q

what is self acualisation?

A
  • Every person has an innate tendency to achieve their full potential to become the best version of themselves.
  • Self - actualisation is the uppermost level of the Hierarchy of Needs.
  • All four lower levels of the hierarchy must be met before the individual can work towards self actualisation (a ‘growth need’) and fulfil their potential.
  • Humanistic psychologists say personal growth is an essential part of what it is to be human.
  • Personal growth is concerned with developing and changing as a person to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal - orientated.
  • There are important psychological barriers that may prevent a person from reaching their potential.
  • Maslow believed individuals experienced self-actualisation in the form of peak experiences.
  • These are moments of extreme inspiration and ecstasy during which they felt able to leave behind all doubt, fears and inhibitions.
53
Q

what is the focus on the self?

A
  • The self refers to how we perceive ourselves as a person.
  • Rogers (1951) claimed that people have two basic needs: positive regard from others and a feeling of self-worth.
  • Feelings of self-worth develop in childhood and are formed as a result of the child’s interaction with parents.
  • Further interactions with significant people can also influence the person’s feelings of self-worth.
  • Rogers believed that how we think about ourselves is important in determining our psychological health.
  • The closer our self-concept and our ideal self are to each other, the greater our feelings of self-worth and the greater our psychological health.
54
Q

what is congruence?

A
  • A similarity between a person’s ideal self and how they perceive themselves to be in real life, results in a state of congruence.
  • However, if there is a difference between the self and ideal self, the person experiences a state of incongruence.
  • The closer our self-image and ideal self are to each other, the greater the congruence and the higher our feelings of self worth.
  • It is rare for a complete state of congruence to exist, with most people experiencing some degree of incongruence.
  • Because most people prefer to see themselves in ways that are consistent with their self-image, they may use defence mechanisms in order to feel less threatened by inconsistencies between themselves.
55
Q

what is conditions of worth?

A
  • Rogers (1959) believed that other people can hinder self-actualisation, rather than help.
  • There are two ways others can give love and acceptance:
    Unconditional: a person is accepted for who they are or what they do
    Conditional: a person is only accepted if they do what others want them to do.
  • When people experience conditional love, they develop conditions of worth.
  • These are conditions that they perceive significant others put upon them and which they believe have to be in place if they are to be accepted by others and see themselves positively.
  • An individual may experience a sense of self acceptance only if they meet these expectations that others have set as conditions of worth.
56
Q

what is influence of counselling psychology?

A
  • Rogers (1959) claimed that a person’s psychological problems were a direct result of their conditions of worth and the conditional love and acceptance they received.
  • He believed that counselling would be able to solve their own problems in constructive ways, moving towards becoming a more fully functioning person.
  • Instead of directing clients, humanistic therapists regard themselves as ‘guides’ or ‘facilitators’ to help people find ways to enable their potential for self - actualisation.
  • Therapists provide empathy and unconditional positive regard, expressing their acceptance and understanding, regardless of the feelings and attitudes the client expresses.
  • The therapist is able to offer an appropriately supportive environment to help dissolve the client’s conditions of worth.
  • This results in the client moving towards being more authentic and more true to self i.e. able to behave in a way that is true to the person they are, rather than the person others want them to be
57
Q

strength of humanistic approach: not reductionist

A
  • Humanistics reject any attempt to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components as other approaches do.
  • In contrast, humanistic psychologists advocate holism, the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person.
    -This approach may have more validity that its alternatives by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real-life setting.
58
Q

strength of humanistic approach: positivist approach

A
  • Humanistic psychologists have been praised for ‘bringing the person back into psychology’ and promoting a positive image of the human condition.
  • Freud saw human beings as slaves to their past and claimed all of us existed somewhere between ‘common unhappiness and absolute despair’.
  • Humanistic psychology offers a refreshing and optimistic view; it sees all people as basically good, free to work towards the achievement of their potential and in control of their lives.
59
Q

weakness of humanistic approach: humanistic research methods

A
  • Evaluating the Humanistic approach scientifically is difficult because most of the evidence used to support this approach fails to establish a causal relationship between the variables.
  • Rogers in particular was an advocate of non-experimental research methods, arguing that the requirements of experimental methods make it impossible to verify the results of counselling.
  • Most psychologists would argue that, without experimental evidence, evaluation of a therapy becomes very difficult.
  • Some studies have shown personal growth as a result of receiving humanistic counselling, but these do not show that the therapy caused the changes, a fundamental requirement of scientific psychology.
60
Q

weakness of humanistic approach: unrealistic

A
  • The Humanistic approach represents an overly idealised and unrealistic view of human nature.
    -Critics argue that people are not as inherently good and ‘growth-oriented’ as Humanistic theorists suggest, and the approach does not adequately recognise people’s capacity for pessimism and self-destructive behaviours.
    -The view that personality development is directed only by an innate potential for growth, and all that all problems arise from blocked self-actualisation, is seen as an oversimplification.
  • Encouraging people to focus on their own self-development rather that on situational forces may be neither realistic or appropriate in modern society
61
Q

weakness of humanistic approach: cultural differences in the hierarchy of needs

A
  • In a later development to his theory Maslow did acknowledge that, for some people, needs may appear in a different order or may even be absent.
  • This is because of cross-cultural evidence.
  • For example, a study carried out in China (Nevis, 1983) found that belongingness needs were seen as more fundamental than physiological needs and that self-actualisation was defined more in terms of contributions to the community than in terms of individual development.
  • Consistent with this, many studies have confirmed that - Europeans and Americans focus more on personal identity, whereas Chinese, Japanese and Koreans define self-concept more in terms of social relationships.
62
Q

weakness of humanistic approach: cultural differences in the hierarchy of needs

A
  • In a later development to his theory Maslow did acknowledge that, for some people, needs may appear in a different order or may even be absent.
  • This is because of cross-cultural evidence.
  • For example, a study carried out in China (Nevis, 1983) found that belongingness needs were seen as more fundamental than physiological needs and that self-actualisation was defined more in terms of contributions to the community than in terms of individual development.
  • Consistent with this, many studies have confirmed that - Europeans and Americans focus more on personal identity, whereas Chinese, Japanese and Koreans define self-concept more in terms of social relationships.

psychology (11 decks)

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