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Neuroanatomy > Forebrain 3 > Flashcards

Forebrain 3 Flashcards

1
Q

What does the neocortex do?

A
  • Has the idea for a movement
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2
Q

What does the direct pathway do as part of motor control?

A
  • Through the basal ganglia it facilitates the appropriate pattern of motor activity
  • Allowing it to acheive the desired movement
    *
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3
Q

What happens with the information after the basal ganglia?

A
  • Information sent via the thalamus to the supplementary motor area
  • This communicates with the motor cortex (M1)
  • M1 controls motor neurones via the corticospinal tract
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4
Q

What does the cerebellum do in terms of motor control?

A
  • Identifies & corrects errors in movement
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5
Q

What does the indirect pathway do to movement?

A
  • Brings an end to a movement
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6
Q

Explain the motor pathway in the brain, form the idea to execution of a movement.

A
  • Neocortex –> has idea for a movement
  • Direct Pathway via the Basal Ganglia –> facilitates appropriate patterns of motor activity to achieve desired movement
  • Information sent via thalamus to SMA
  • SMA communicates with M1
  • M1 controls motor neurones via corticospinal tract
  • Cerebellum –> identifies & correct errors in movement
  • Indirect Pathway –> brings an end to the movement
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7
Q

What is the thalamus part of?

A
  • Diencephalon
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8
Q

What 3 pathways synapse in the thalamus on their way to the cerebral cortex?

A
  1. Basal Ganglia (usually globus pallidus internal segment)
  2. Dentate Nucleus of Cerebellum
  3. Somatosensory Pathways (spinothalamic tract & lateral meniscal pathway)

NB: All pathways carrying specific information to the cerebral cortex synapses in the thalamus

NB: Thalamus is a sort of translation centre (translating incoming excitatory signals for cortex)

This information goes to the thalamus to be relayed to the cortex

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9
Q

Where is the thalamus found?

A
  • Either side of the 3rd Ventricle
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10
Q

Which part of the globus pallidus has an outflow to the thalamus?

A
  • Internal Segment

NB: Most things that need to go to the thalamus/cortex from the basal ganglia go via the globus pallidus internal segment

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11
Q

What is the only information type that goes to the cerebral cortex that is not relayed by the thalamus?

A
  • Smell
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12
Q

What is important about the connection between the thalamus & cerebral cortex?

A
  • Each nucleus of the thalamus –> has reciprical connections with a specific area of cerebral cortex
  • Informaton can also be passed between cortical areas via the thalamus
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13
Q

What is communication between region of cortex called?

A
  • Direct Association Neurones (main way of communication)

NB: They can also communicate with other regions via the thalamus (however this is not the main way)

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14
Q

Important point about the thalamus.

A
  • Different types of information –> go to different nuclei in the thalamus
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15
Q

What is the superior colliculus important for?

A
  • Eye Movement
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16
Q

What is the inferior colliculus important for?

A
  • Auditory Pathway
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17
Q

Where is the hypothalamic sulcus found between?

A

Groove between:

  • Intraventricular Foramen
  • Opening of the Aqueduct
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18
Q

What is above & below the hypothalamic sulcus?

A
  • Anything Below –> HYPOTHALAMUS
  • Anything Above –> THALAMUS (on the side of the 3rd ventricle)

NB: Thalamus is further back than 3rrd ventricle but forms a large part of the 3rd ventricle wall

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19
Q

Where is the internal medullary lamina (intramedullary) found and what is it?

A
  • Sheet of White Matter
  • Found in the middle of the thalamus (which is mostly grey) which divides at the front (fork)
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20
Q

Where is the anterior nucleus found?

A
  • Between the 2 branches of the internal medullary lamina (front fork)
  • Front of the Thalamus
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21
Q

Where is the dorsal medial nucleus found?

A
  • Nucleus on the medial side of the internal medullary lamina
    *
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22
Q

Where is the pulvinar nucleus found?

A
  • Expanded nucleus at the back
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23
Q

What 2 areas does the pulvinar nucleus have lots of connections with?

A
  • Parietal Lobe (more)
  • Occipital Lobe (less)

NB: Enlarged in primates

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24
Q

Where is the intralaminar nuclei?

A
  • Found inside the internal medullary lamina
  • Group of nuclei found here (middle of thalamus)
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25
Q

How many lateral nuclei are there?

What are they called?

A
  • 3 nuclei
  1. Ventral-Posterior Lateral Nucleus (back)
  2. Ventral-Lateral Lateral Nucleus (side)
  3. Ventral-Anterior Lateral Nucleus (front - besides anterior nucleus)

NB: Each are important with specific connections with specific places of the brain

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26
Q

Which pathway is the lateral geniculate nuclei involved in?

A
  • Visual Pathway
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27
Q

Which pathway is the medial geniculate nuclei involved in?

A
  • Auditory Pathway
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28
Q

Where are the lateral & medial geniculate nuclei found?

A
  • These sit at the bottom of the thalamus
  • They look like ‘pimples’
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29
Q

Where is the thalamic reticular nucleus found?

What is its function?

A
  • Around the lateral sides of the thalamus
  • This is different from the rest of the thalamus
  • Receives collaterals from fibres that come in & out of the thalamus
  • Function –> Counsciousness
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30
Q

What is the claustrum important for?

A
  • It is the seat of consciousness
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31
Q

What sensory modalities does the dorsal column / medial lemniscal pathway relay?

A
  1. Discriminative Touch
  2. Conscious Propioception
  3. Vibration Sense
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32
Q

What sensory modalities does the spinothalamic tract relay?

A
  1. Nociception
  2. Temperature
  3. Light Touch
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33
Q

Where in the brain do all somatosensory fibres relay before going to the cerebral cortex?

A
  • Thalamus

NB: All somatosensory fibres do this

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34
Q

Which nucleus do somatosensory fibres relay through in the thalamus?

A
  • Ventral-Posterior Nucleus
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35
Q

What is the main somatosensory nucleus of the thalamus?

A
  • Ventral-Posterior Nucleus of the Thalamus
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36
Q

What arrangement is the ventral-posterior nucleus in?

Roughly how is it organised?

A
  • Somatotopic Arrangement
  • Head Sensory Information –> Medial Part of VP Nucleus
  • Rest of Body Sensory Information –> Lateral Part of VP Nucleus
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37
Q

What is the ventral-posterior nucleus of the thalamus important for?

A
  • Somatosensory relay
  • Connected to the somatosensory cortex (post-central gyrus)
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38
Q

What syndrome can arise from damage to the somatosensory nuclei in the thalamus?

A
  • Thalamic Syndrome
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39
Q

Occlusion in which blood supply can cause thalamic syndrome?

A
  • Posterior Cerebral Artery (supplies thalamus)
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40
Q

Where do the blood supply to the thalamus come from?

A
  • Posterior Cerebral Artery (PCA)
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41
Q

How does damage to the thalamus usually arise?

A
  • Vascular Problem
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42
Q

How is the ventral-posterior nucleus specifically supplied?

A
  • Small blood vessels from the PCA

These can be blocked –> causing variable effects –> however somatosensation is almost always affected

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43
Q

What are the effects of thalamic syndrome?

A
  • All somatosensory activity from the contralateral side –> is interpreted as painful
  • Will not feel other somatosensation
  • Numb but painful feeling
  • This will be ongoing (24 hours a day)

NB: Pain is like being immersed in boiling hot water continuously

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44
Q

What is a big issue with thalamic syndrome?

A
  • Pain is ongoing
  • Very painful
  • High rate of suicide (due to pain)
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45
Q

What are the effects of prefrontal lobotomy on pain?

A
  • Patients could still feel pain
  • However –> they were no longer worried about the pain (thus no longer suicidal)

No prefrontal lobe –> means you cannot plan for the future –> therefore you do not worry for the rest of your life

NB: Pain is a construct of the cerebral cortex

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46
Q

Good diagram of the brain blood supply

A
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47
Q

Describe the pathway of the PCA and the supply to the thalamus.

A
  • Winds around the midbrain
  • Gives off lots of small branches at the base of the brain
  • Some Branches –> penetrating central branches –> supplying thalamus
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48
Q

What is the main output from the cerebellum?

A
  • Dentate Nucleus

NB: Helps to coordinate movements via 2 nuclei in the thalamus

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49
Q

Which 2 nuclei are the destinations of the main output from the cerebellum (dentate nucleus)?

A
  • Ventral-Lateral Nuclei
  • Ventral-Anterior Nuclei

NB: These then have recipricol connections with the pre-motor & motor cortex

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50
Q

What part of the brain activates when planning movements?

A
  • Supplementary Motor Area
  • Active Bilaterally (even if the movement is one sided)
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51
Q

What are the 2 main motor nuclei in the thalamus which relay motor information to the motor cortex?

A
  • Ventral-Anterior Nucleus
  • Ventral-Lateral Nucleus
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52
Q

What is the general function of the corpus striatum?

A
  • Part of the basal ganglia
  • Selects appropriate programs for producing movements that your cortex desires
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53
Q

What are the 2 main functions of the cerebellum?

A
  1. Coordination of Movement
  2. Correction of Errors
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54
Q

Where does the basal ganglia particularly relay information up to?

Where does it go via?

A
  • Supplementary Motor Area (SMA)
  • Thalamus
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55
Q

Where does the optic tract go via to get to Area V1?

A
  • Lateral Geniculate Nucleus
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56
Q

What are 2 other names for area V1?

A
  • Brodmann Area 17
  • Calcarine Cortex
57
Q

Discribe briefly the path from the retina to the brain.

A
  • Retinal Ganglia –> send information down the optic nerve
  • It goes the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)
  • LGN –> has recipricol connection with V1 in the calcirine cortex
58
Q

Outline the auditory pathway in the brain from the cochlear nuclei.

A
  1. Fibre from the Cochlea –> synapses onto the Inferior Colliculus
  2. Fibres from here go to the Medial Geniculate Nucleus of the Thalamus
  3. Medial Geniculate Nucleus –> fibres go to the Primary Auditory Cortex

Cochlea –> Inferior Colliclus –> Medial Geniculate Nucleus –> Primary Auditory Cortex

59
Q

Where is the primary auditory cortex found?

A
  • Buried in the Lateral Fissure on the Superior Surface of the Temporal Lobe
60
Q

Where does the fibre from the cochlea first synapse?

A
  • Inferior Colliculus
61
Q

Which part of the thalamus is involved in the auditory pathway?

A
  • Medial Geniculate Nucleus
62
Q

Which nucleus in the thalamus is involved with emotions & personality?

A
  • Dorsal Medial Nucleus
63
Q

What is the pathway for emotions? (generally)

A
  • Amygdala –> Dorsomedial Nucleus (Thalamus) –> Prefrontal Cortex

NB: Recipricol connection always between thalamus & cortex

64
Q

Via what part of the internal capsule do the fibres go to the prefrontal cortex?

A
  • Anterior Limb of the Internal Capsule

NB: Recipiricol connection

65
Q

What are the effects of the amygdala when its stimulated and when its ablated?

A
  • Stimulated –> Anger & Fright
  • Ablated (Bilaterally) –> Placcidity
66
Q

What is the intralaminar nuclei important for?

A
  • Consciousness
67
Q

What type of monoamine does the locus ceruleus send?

A
  • Noradrenaline (NA)

NB: Found at the base of the brain (fibres go everywhere)

68
Q

Where is the locus ceruleus found?

A
  • Pons
69
Q

What does the locus ceruleus & noradrenaline fibres do?

A
  • Activates the cerebral cortex
70
Q

What monoamine does the nucleus basalis send all over the neocortex?

A
  • Cholinergic Fibres
71
Q

What nucleus can the reticular fibres activate?

A
  • Nucleus Basalis (ACh)
72
Q

What function are the following involved in?

  • Locus Ceruleus (pons)
  • Reticular Fibres
  • Nucleus Basalis
  • Hypothalamic Nuclei
A
  • Consciousness (keep you alert)
73
Q

Where are the reticular formation found? (2 places)

A
  1. Medial part of the Rostral Pons
  2. Midbrain
74
Q

Damage to what 3 places can cause a profound coma to be induced?

A
  1. Reticular Formation (medial part of the rostral pons)
  2. Reticular Formation (midbrain)
  3. Intralaminer Nuclei in the Thalamus (bilaterally)

Damage/distruption to this system –> means the cerebral cortex is not stimulated/woken up –> giving rise to a coma

75
Q

Where do fibres from the intralaminer nuclei go?

A
  • Cerebral Cortex
  • Non-specific (unlike other nuclei in the thalamus)
  • Widespread excitatory neurones
  • Collaterals going all over to large areas of neocortex
76
Q

What is the main input into the intralaminer nuclei?

Why is this pathway important?

A
  • Information from the Reticular Formation in the Brainstem
  • Lots of Nociceptive Inputs go to the Reticular Formation

Therefore painful stimuli go to reticular formation –> then to intralaminer nuclei –> which then goes to widespread areas of cortex –> important in consciousness

  • Allows you to be awoken in cortex if there is pain
  • Protective function
77
Q

What 2 places do axon collaterals go to from the intralaminer nuclei?

Why is this needed?

A
  1. Cerebral Cortex
  2. Striatum

Allows the striatum & cortex to be prepared & ready to organise movements in response to a nasty stimulus

NB: Cold object on your face whilst you are asleep

78
Q

Other than the brainstem reticular formation, from where else does the intralaminer nuclei get inputs from?

A
  • Spinothalamic Tract (nociceptive pathway) - directly
79
Q

What procedure may be able to help patients with damage to these alertness centres restore consciousness?

What does the procedure involve?

A
  • Deep brain stimulation
  • Electrodes placed in the central part of the thalamus
  • Stimulate the intralaminer nucleus in the thalamus

NB: Very important nucleus in consciousness

80
Q

Name the 6 structures which make up the limbic system

A
  1. Amygdala
  2. Hippocampus
  3. Thalamus
  4. Hypothalamus
  5. Basal Ganglia
  6. Cingulate Gyrus
81
Q

What is the overall function of the amygdala?

A
  • Emotion centre of the brain
82
Q

What is the overall hippocampus function?

A
  • Essential role in forming new memories about past experiences
83
Q

Where is the limbic cortex?

A
  • Anterior part of the cingulate gyrus
  • Continous with the parahippocampal gyrus (via isthmus)
  • Ends at the uncus (medial temporal lobe part for smell)
84
Q

Where is the cingulate gyrus found? (generally)

A
  • Goes around the corpus callosum
85
Q

What are the main 2 functions of the limbic cortex?

A
  1. Memory
  2. Controlling ANS

NB: Complicated functions

NB: When forming memory information goes from the anterior cingulate gyrus to the parahippocampus (centre for memory)

86
Q

Where is the high micturition centre?

A
  • Anterior part of the cingulate gyrus
87
Q

What is the high mictruition centre responsible for?

A
  • Enables what & when & where it is appropriate for you to empty your bladder
  • Anterior part of the cingulate gyrus
  • It must be functioning on at least 1 side of the brain
88
Q

What condition can affect the cingulate gyrus area?

A
  • Meningioma
89
Q

What effect does nocieption have on the anterior cingulate gyrus?

A
  • It activates the ANS system (e.g. sympathetic)
90
Q

Schematic of the medial side of the brain hemisphere.

A
91
Q

What is the cingulum?

A
  • Bundle of axons connecting the cingulate cortex with the entorhinal cortex + parahippocampal gyrus
92
Q

Where is the entorhinal cortex found?

A
  • Anterior part of the parahippocampal gyrus
93
Q

To where does the entorhinal cortex send axons?

NB: Entorhinal cortex = anterior part of the parahippocampal gyrus

A
  • Hippocampus
94
Q

What is the overall general pathway of the limbic system?

A

Cingulate Gyrus –> Parahippocampal Gyrus + Entorhinal Cortex –> Hippocampus

95
Q

What do the 3 red arrows point to on this scan?

A
96
Q

What is found in the inferomedial temporal lobe?

A
  • Hippocampus & Adjacent Cortex
97
Q

What is the important function of the inferomedial temporal lobe?

A
  • Needed for Episodic Memory formation

NB: New events about past memories (who, what, where etc.)

98
Q

In which fossa is the hippocampus situated in?

A
  • Middle Cranial Fossa
99
Q

What pathology can happen in the middle cranial fossa and what part of the brain could this affect?

A
  • Infection can accumulate
  • Can affect Hippocampus
100
Q

Where is the hippocampus found?

A
  • Deep in the medial temporal lobe
101
Q

What do you need for episodic memory?

A
  • Hippocampus (medial temporal lobe) on at least one side
102
Q

What condition do you get from bilateral ablation of the hippocampus (medial temporal lobe)?

What is this condition?

A
  • Anterograde Amnesia
  • Cannot put new memories into your memory stores –> thus cannot make long-term memories (does not affect short-term memory)

NB: It is necessary on one side of the brain to form episodic memory

103
Q

What condition can commonly affect the medial temporal lobe in the middle cranial fossa?

How does it happen?

What is affected?

A
  • Meningitis
  • Common
  • Lots of bacteria found in the subarachnoid space
  • Subarachnoid space contains CSF and is found all around the brain
  • Bacteria settles down in the middle temporal fossa around medial temporal lobe (hippocampus region)
  • This damage causes inability to form episodic memory
104
Q

What types of neurones are found in the hippocampus?

A
  • Pyramidal Neurones
105
Q

How is the hippocampus shaped?

What divisions is it divided into?

A
  • Medial surface of the temporal lobe –> the cortex is folded in
  • Forms the hippocampus
  • Divided into CA1
106
Q

What 2 other structures are part of the hippocampus?

A
  • Fornix (white matter from hippocampal formation)
  • Dentate gyrus
107
Q

How many layers are there in the hippocampus and what is the middle layer called?

A
  • 3 layers
  • Middle –> Pyramidal Cell Layer
108
Q

Learn this diagram

A
109
Q

What does the septal nucleus do in terms of the hippocampus?

A
  • Sends cholinergic neurones back to the hippocampus along the same pathway through the fornix
  • Cholinergic fibres –> do not carry specific information –> they help synaptic activity everywhere
110
Q

Where is the mammilary body found?

A
  • Bump on the bottom of the hypothalamus
111
Q

What are the 2 sources of afferent input into the hippocampus called?

A
  • Perforant path
  • Septohippocampal
112
Q

What do the the septohippocampal carry?

A
  • Cholinergic fibres (from septal nuclei)
  • Carries ACh (non-specific information) –> to improve & speed up information processing –> this promotes synaptic activity
  • Comes from the septal nuclei

NB: Septal nuclei afferents go all over the hippocampus

113
Q

What is the perforant pathway?

A
  • Path from the entorhinal cortex to the dentate gyrus
  • Carries specific information about what things are going into the memory stores
  • Axons perforate the cortex –> enter dentate gyrus
  • Mossy fibres then go to CA3 (hippocampus)

Entorhinal Cortex –> Dentate Gyrus –> Hippocampus

114
Q

What is the path from the septal nuclei to the hippocampus?

How does it help?

A
  • Sends cholinergic fibres through the fornix –> into hippocampus
  • Promotes synaptic activity –> helps memorisation
115
Q

What disease involves problems with the septal nuclei?

A
  • Alzeihmers
116
Q

What are the 2 possible output directions form the hippocampal formation?

A
  • Via fornix
  • Via Entorhinal Cortex (back the way they came)
117
Q

Describe the hippocampal output pathway via fornix.

Which nucleus of the thalamus does it synapse into?

A
  • Output from the hippocampus
  • Runs along the pathway to mammary body (all the way around)
  • Synapses into the anterior nucleus of the thalamus
118
Q

Where does CA1 output go?

A
  • Entorhinal Cortex
119
Q

Name the 3 pointed structures.

A
120
Q

What happens to the mammilary body in alcoholics?

Why?

How can this be stopped or maybe reveresed?

A
  • Shrivels up & dies
  • Lack thymine in the diet
  • Giving thymine supplements
121
Q

Learn this summary of tracts.

A
122
Q

What is so important about this circuit of papez?

A
  • Necessary on at least one side of the brain in order to form a memory

NB: Hippocampus & medial temporal lobe are needed on at least one side for forming memory

123
Q

What happens if there is bilateral damage to the circuit of papez?

A
  • Loss of episodic memory
124
Q

What happened to patient NA?

A
  • Fencing foil –> whent up his nose straight into thalamus
  • Destroyed mammillary bodies (hypothalamus) & mammalothalamic tract
  • These are part of the circuit of papez
  • Bilateral damage –> meant lose of ability to form episodic memory

He kept things around him to try and remind of places he had been & had lists around the house of things he needed to remember

There were no cognitive deficiences

125
Q

What can cause bilateral damage to medial temporal lobes?

A
  • Infections
  • Accumulate bilaterally in the medial cranial fossa

NB: Bilateral stroke can also cause this but this is very unlikely

126
Q

What happened to patient HM?

A
  • Bilateral removal of medial temporal lobes
  • No cognitive effects
  • Could not remember new events again (episodic memory)
127
Q

What is the syndrome called when you have bilateral damage to the temporal lobes?

A
  • Kluver-Bucy Syndrome
  • Loss of anterior temporal lobe bilaterally
    *
128
Q

What are the effects of Kluver-Bucy syndrome?

A
  • Profound amnesia (inability to form episodic memory) –> anterograde (new events)
  • Hypersexuality (amygdala removed)
  • Placidity (amygdala removed)
  • Taste everything
  • Visual agnosia (loss of visual association cortex)
129
Q

How is the temporal lobe involved in vision?

A
  • Temporal lobe –> part of visual association cortex
  • Involved in identifying objects in the visual field (‘what’ stream)

NB: FFA is also part of the temporal lobe

130
Q

What are the effects of losing vision areas in temporal lobe?

A
  • Inability to recognise things
  • Visual agonsia (if bilateral)
  • Mix up a tree with a b
131
Q

What causes Korsakoff’s syndrome? (2 things)

A
  • Mammillary nuclei degeneration
  • Anterior thalamus degeneration
132
Q

What causes Korsakoff’s syndrome?

Among who is it common?

A
  • Loss of Vitamin B1 Intake
  • Causes degeneration of mammillary body & anterior nucleus
  • Common among alcoholics & vitamin deficiency
133
Q

What are the effects of Korsakoff’s syndrome?

A
  1. Profound retrograde amnesia (loss of memmory from before event)
  2. Confabulation
134
Q

What is the hypothalamus in charge of?

A
  • Hormones!
  • Top centre that controls ANS & Hormones
135
Q

What are the hypothalamic nuerones involved in?

A
  • Neurosecretion from Posterior Pituitary Gland
  • Production of Release Factors that regulate hormone release from Anterior Pituitary Gland
136
Q

What happens in terms of body temperature if the hypothalamus is damaged?

A
  • No control over body temperature
  • Constantly need to measure it
  • Go into cold & warm places to change it
  • Cold-Blooded
137
Q

Name the 7 things that the hypothalamus regulates?

A
  1. Sleep & wakefulness
  2. Body temperature
  3. Food intake
  4. Water intake & loss (hormones & behaviour)
  5. Other aspects of ANS
  6. Sex & reproduction (hormones & behaviour)
  7. Direct stress response (influences blood flow to specific tissues bya cting as 1st step in stimulation of secretion of adrenal stress hormones)
138
Q

Where is histamine released from?

What is its affect on consciousness?

A
  • Histaminergic neurones found in the hypothalamus
  • Controls sleep/day cycle
  • More Histamine –> More Awake
  • Less histamine is released during sleep
139
Q

What is a common side effect of anti-histamines?

Does this always happen?

A
  • Sleepiness
  • Only if it penetrates the blood-brain barrier (thus affects brain)

Neuroanatomy (7 decks)

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