Food production Flashcards
State how soil texture affects the selection of a site for outdoor food production
Clay soils are cold - slow to warm in spring
Clay soils prone to waterlogging - may cause crown/root rot
Clay soils are nutrient-rich
Clay soils retain warmth for longer in autumn
Sandy soils warm earlier in spring = earlier sowing & planting of crops
Sandy soils have poor moisture retention - nutrients are easily leached (requires additional fertiliser and watering)
Root crops prefer a sandy soil
Brassicas perform better on clay soil
State how susceptibility to wind affects the selection of a site for outdoor food production
Broken branches in fruit trees
Blossom and fruit being blown from trees
Supports may be blown over
Pollinators unable to fly in high winds
Wind increases transpiration = higher loss of moisture
List THREE limitations of growing fruit and vegetables in a small garden
Crop rotation is difficult/less effective
Lack of space to grow top fruit
Permanent plantings difficult e.g. rhubarb/asparagus
Not possible to use machinery e.g. rotavator
Spacing has to be reduced = smaller veg and yield
State what is meant by the “cultivation window”
The optimum time to cultivate any soil type, including heavy clay or loam soil, without damaging the structure
Cultivation is carried out when soil is not too dry or wet. “Cultivation window” can be very narrow and is ideally optimised before any inclement weather, including winter frosts
Describe consolidation when creating a seed bed
Consolidation removes the larger air pockets in the soil
Soil surface is lightly trodden using heels of your boots, or tamped down using reversed head of garden rake
Describe tilth production when creating a seed bed
With use of garden rake, the previously consolidated and levelled soil surface should be raked in all directions to break up any clods and remove large stones.
Aim is to create a friable (easily crumbed) soil surface with fine crumb texture
Describe production of a crop of Brussels sprouts under following headings:
i) ONE NAMED cultivar
ii) sowing (excluding seed bed prep)
iii) transplanting or planting out
i) ‘Brodie’
ii) Sow under protection in February in modules - depth 1-1.5cm
Can also sow outdoors in a prepared seed bed in March/April. Sow thinly in drills 1-1.5cm deep and 15cm apart.
iii) Transplant indoor module grown in mid/late spring
Transplant outdoor grown from mid-spring to early summer
Seedlings s/b 10-15cm tall and have 5-7 true leaves
Plant quite deep (up to first pair of true leaves) to improve stability, 60-75cm apart, and firm in well
Water in after planting
Collar can be placed around neck of transplants (cabbage root fly!)
Describe the production of a crop of radish under following headings:
i) ONE NAMED radish cultivar
ii) sowing (excluding soil prep)
iii) thinning
i) ‘Scarlet Globe’
ii) Sow from Feb to August “in situ”
(early and late sowings can be covered with cloche or fleece)
Sow thinly in short drills 1cm deep, 2.5cm apart, with rows space 10-15cm apart
Can sow successionally as they grow fast
Good as a “catch crop” - between rows of e.g. peas/potatoes (slower growers!)
iii) Thin to 3cm apart to prevent spindly growth - this allows remaining roots to develop fully
Unwanted radish are carefully pulled up by foliage to avoid disturbance of rest of crop
Remaining crop are firmed and watered after thinning.
Describe formative pruning for an apple tree from whip into an open-centred bush
Aim is to produce an open, goblet-shaped tree on top of a clear trunk with a balanced branch system
Prune in Nov to March whilst dormant
Plant in winter and cut single whip back to 50-60cm
2nd winter - remove DDDDXR first! Choose 4 branches for framework. Shorten by 1/2 to 1/3, cutting back to buds FACING OUTWARDS!!
3rd winter - remove DDDDXR first! Shorten main laterals by 1/2 to 1/3 - cutting laterals back to 4 BUDS helps to form fruiting spurs.
4th winter - remove DDDDXR first! Shorten branch leaders by 1/4 to encourage bushy growth.
State FOUR benefits of training apple trees as espaliers
Aesthetically pleasing
Allows good fruit production in a small space
Heavy fruit yield as more lateral spurs
Easy access to trees for maintenance and harvesting fruit.
Name ONE pest (excl. birds) and ONE control measure for strawberries
Two-spotted red spider mite:
Spray with fatty acids
Name ONE pest (excl. birds) and ONE control measure for raspberries
Raspberry beetle:
Pheromone trap
Name ONE pest (excl. birds) and ONE control measure for apples
Wasps:
- they make small holes on surface of fruit larger!
- protect fruit with muslin bags or tights, or beer traps (jam jar with wasp-sized hole in paper lid)
Name ONE pest (excl. birds) and ONE control measure for plums
Plum moth:
Fruits ripen early with a pink caterpillar inside - fruits misshapen.
Pheromone traps to catch male moths in spring
State THREE benefits of deep topsoil for fruit/veg production
Unimpeded root growth for veg and fruit trees
Good anchorage for fruit trees
Space for roots to spread and access nutrients
State THREE benefits of sandy soil for fruit/veg production
Very suitable for root veg crops
Free draining
Warms up early in spring
State THREE benefits of a south-facing slope for fruit/veg production
Higher light levels
Provides opportunity to extend growing season
Soil warms very quickly
State THREE benefits of neutral soil pH for fruit/veg production
Greatest range of veg crops can be grown
Widest range of nutrients available
Disorders and diseases less likely e.g. clubroot
State THREE benefits of a sheltered site for fruit/veg production
Better conditions for pollinators to fly
Less physical damage to fruit trees e.g. broken branches & blown off fruit
Reduces transpiration = reduced water loss
Reduces wind speed and wind rock to plants
Describe sowing courgette seeds into modules under each heading:
i) choice of growing medium
ii) filling the modules
iii) sowing the seeds
iv) aftercare
i) Seed compost, John Innes No.1 or multipurpose
ii) Overfill modules, including corners;
Tap/bang on bench to eliminate air pockets;
Strike off excess;
Slightly firm/tamp down so media is just below top rim of modules (for watering).
iii) April - sow 1-2 seeds per module at a depth of 2-3 cm;
Sow seeds on their sides to avoid rotting;
Push into growing media or make hole with dibber;
Label and water once sown.
iv) Keep in frost-free, light position e.g. heated propagator at 18-21 degrees C;
Keep moist but not waterlogged;
High humidity;
Monitor for slugs and pests;
If two seeds per module were sown, remove the weaker seedling!
List FOUR plant groups appropriate for a four-bed crop rotation system
Legumes
Brassicas
Roots & tubers
Alliums
Benefits of crop rotation
Increases soil fertility and nutrients
Soil is under less stress (low nutrient demand)
Allows a wide range of vegetables
Enables nitrogen fixed by legumes to be available for next crop e.g. brassicas
Reduces/limits soil borne pests and diseases
Allows liming for brassicas to reduce risk of clubroot/ avoids liming for potatoes which may cause scab
Improves soil structure and reduces erosion
Limitations of crop rotation
More skills and knowledge required
Keen commitment required!
Does not allow for personal preference of crops - choice can be restricted
Difficult to implement successfully in a small garden - large space needed
Difficult to include permanent crops e.g. rhubarb, asparagus
Not effective for long-term pests and diseases e.g. nematodes - and only effective for soil-borne P&D
Soil type may be suitable only for certain crops.
Describe the production of a crop of runner beans under each heading:
i) ONE named cultivar
ii) ONE appropriate support system
iii) direct sowing of the crop
iv) aftercare
i) ‘Red Rum’
ii) ‘A’-frame - use to support a double row;
Canes 2-2.4m long - 1 or 2 plants per cane;
Horizontal canes along top/ridge - tie tightly to keep frame rigid ;
Canes 60cm apart (row), 30-60cm apart in row.
iii) Direct sow in May/June (12 deg C or above) using dibber or trowel;
5cm deep. Sow at base of each cane, 30-60cm apart;
Cover with soil, label and water
iv) Keep watered;
Control slugs/pests - e.g. black bean aphids;
Encourage young plants to climb canes;
Check structure regularly for stability in exposed areas;
Remove weeds regularly - hoe
Pinch out tops when they reach top of canes;
Mulch;
Encourage pollinators;
Lime soil if necessary
Formative pruning/training for a plum tree - which methods best?
Fan or step-over are best - see apples for method!
Plum trees will not form productive espaliers.
Describe maintenance pruning of a spur-bearing apple tree
Once the framework is established, prune each winter.
After removing the DDDDXR material, prune new growth back to four to six buds.
If the spur systems become overcrowded, thin them out.
Describe maintenance pruning of a plum tree
Plums should be pruned in spring or summer.
If pruned in autumn/winter they are much more prone to bacterial canker and silver leaf infection.
Remove DDDDXR material.
Describe the importance of formative pruning for tree shape and yield
Formative pruning starts in the nursery and continues through the tree’s early years in its ultimate location.
Formative pruning helps the tree to establish a good, attractive branch structure as it grows.
Provides a strong, balanced, open, attractive framework.
Winter pruning of trained apples and early spring pruning of trained plums:
- encourages vigorous growth
- ensures that plants are kept free of congestion, giving space for fruits to develop
- prevents branches from rubbing on (and wounding) each other.
Summer pruning of trained fruit trees:
- encourages the formation of flowering (and therefore fruiting) buds
- allows light in to encourage fruit ripening.
Describe methods of training for apples
Fan, espalier, stepover, cordon
Fan:
central leader is cut out completely when the tree is young (encourages the laterals to develop to form main framework)
Laterals (side branches) are then pruned back to encourage sub-laterals to form.
The branches may need to be tied to canes with support wires, to keep them in the desired position - wires about 30 cm apart.
Espalier:
cut back the central leader in winter
laterals should grow vigorously after the leader has been removed - these are lowered gradually to the horizontal (forming the first tier of branches)
a new leader will have also grown. This is cut back in winter at the point where you want the next tier to form.
new laterals will then grow, which should be gradually lowered to form the second tier
process of cutting back the new leader and tying in the two new laterals is repeated each year until the required number of tiers has formed.
wires for the tiers should be 45-60 cm apart.
Step-over:
Unlike fans and espaliers, the central leader is not cut back to form a step-over.
Rather, the central leader is gradually lowered to the horizontal during the first growing season.
The horizontal is usually at about 30-60 cm above the ground level.
The laterals are pruned to encourage spur formation. They make good use of space and a nice edge to a bed.
Cordon:
Like the step-over, the central leader is not cut back.
Instead, when planting, the young tree is planted at 45 degrees.
To keep the tree at this angle, the tree is tied to a cane and the cane itself must be tied to the supporting wires.
The laterals are pruned to encourage spur formation. The support wires are about 60 cm apart.
Pruning a step-over - timing and method
SEPTEMBER.
Prune laterals to encourage spur formation.
Prune any re-growth to one leaf above previous cut
Leader/s - only cut when full length is reached.
Winter - DDDD, also spur thinning if required.
Describe how to plant blackcurrants:
i) site & soil
ii) spacing
iii) method of planting
i) Sunny, well-dug spot;
Sheltered;
Rich in manure/OM;
Moisture-retentive & free-draining;
pH of 6.5-7.0
ii) Bushes spaced 1.2-1.5m apart in all directions.
iii) Soak roots of bare-root plants beforehand;
Dig hole double size of container;
Deep enough to be 5cm deeper than in container;
Incorporate OM into hole;
Backfill soil around roots and firm in carefully;
Water and apply 10cm mulch (farm manure) around base of plant.
ONE pest of blackcurrants (excl. birds) and one control method
Blackcurrant gall midge:
Plant resistant cultivars e.g. ‘Ben Hope’
EIGHT factors to be considered when selecting a site for outdoor food production
Soil texture
Soil structure
Soil pH
(Soil) Drainage
Susceptibility to wind
Susceptibility to frost
Area (of land available)
Aspect
Availability of water
Access
Slope
Shade
Describe how soil pH may influence crop growth
pH of 6.5-7.00 is ideal for growing veg.
Brassicas prefer over 7.0 to avoid clubroot
Potatoes more prone to scab in alkaline soil
Blueberries require acid soil of pH 5.0
State how susceptibility to frost may influence crop growth
Frost damages seedlings, buds, fruit, fruitlets and mature plants
Frost pockets from at base of slopes and in areas of shade
Hedges across a slope can attract frost pockets also
Describe what is meant by a raised bed
An area of ground on top of which soil is thrown up from the surrounding paths to create mounds
Raised beds can also have a supporting framework, e.g. wood planks
Compost or organic matter can be incorporated into the soil
Ideal as no-dig beds
State the specification for a typical raised bed and paths
Length - 3m
Width - 1.5m
Height - dependent on use preference (e.g. if for disabled gardener) - at least 25cm.
Paths:
- 30cm wide min. for walking
- 45cm wide min. for wheelbarrow
- 1m wide for wheelchair
Name SIX distinct materials used to construct the framework of a raised bed
Timber planks
Scaffold boards
NEW railway sleepers
Bricks
Metal edging
Iron sheets
Describe production of a main crop of potatoes under following:
i) Named cultivar
ii) Planting (excluding ground prep)
i) Maris Piper
ii) Plant in late April;
Plant in narrow trench, 10-15cm deep;
Space 40cm apart, 60cm between rows;
Chitted shoots should face upwards;
Cover with soil and water and label.
Describe the term, “cut and come again” vegetables, give TWO crop examples
Term applies to a range of leafy salad and veg plants that can be harvested by cutting off leaves that then regrow and can be harvested again.
Allows several harvests over a long period of time.
e.gs. Chard
Rocket
Salad bowl lettuce
How does intercropping maximise vegetable production? Give two named examples
Intercropping is when different crops are planted in combination;
Multiple crops grow together in a bed rather than just one;
Smaller plants are planted between the rows of the larger plants;
Increases diversity to the plot;
Remember to allow enough space!
Plants do not compete with each other - they grow at different rates and to different sizes.
e.g. FAST-growing: lettuce, radish
SLOW-growing: leeks, Brussels sprouts
Describe production of a crop of raspberries under:
i) advantages of purchasing certified stock
ii) weed control
iii) harvesting
i) Raspberry canes that are certified stock are:
- true to type
- virus free
- disease free
ii) - Best weeded by hand (they are shallow-rooted);
- Hoe between rows but take care not to damage roots - suckers may form!
- Mulch to reduce weeds - well rotted farm manure or garden compost (50-100mm)
- Permeable membrane between rows;
- Glyphosate on established crops if necessary - for perennial weeds.
iii) - Summer fruiting harvested in July/Aug;
- Autumn fruiting harvested Sept/Oct;
- Pick carefully by hand on a dry day - early or late, when it’s cool;
- Should have a good colour, should come away easily laving core/plug behind;
Discard any diseased/damaged fruit;
Don’t pile too deeply on top of each other - easily damaged/squashed.
Describe harvest and storage of NAMED apple crop under:
i) named cultivar
ii) harvesting for storage
iii) method of storage
i) ‘Bramley Seedling’
ii) - Harvest for storage when slightly under-ripe and still firm;
- ‘Bramley’s Seedling’ is harvested in mid-autumn (sept/oct);
- Choose a cool, dry day;
- Fruits must be P&D-free, and bruise/blemish-free;
- Cup fruit in hand and twist - it should come away fairly easily with stalk intact.
iii) - Store in apple racks/drawers, wooden boxed, plastic bags;
- Vermin-free, dark, cool, frost-free
- In racks or boxes, wrap apples in greaseproof paper and not touching - prevents rot;
- In plastic bags, make a few holes to balance humidity & air circulation - place 4-5 apples in each bag, with top folded over but not sealed - keep in dark place.
Name FOUR non-living windbreaks
Hit & miss fencing
Willow/hazel hurdles
Paraweb
Trellis
Name FIVE living plant species suitable for use as a windbreak
Fagus sylivatica (Beech)
Taxus bacata (Yew)
Ilex aquifolium (Holly)
Carpinus betulus (Hornbeam)
Crataegus monogyna (Hawthorn)
State FOUR benefits and THREE limitations of non-living windbreaks
Benefits:
- Take up little space, compared with a hedge - good for smaller sites
- Provides instant protection
- Quick and easy to erect
- Limited maintenance
Limitations:
- May be unsightly
- No benefit for wildlife
- Wooden fencing needs maintenance and replacing
State FOUR benefits and FOUR limitations of living windbreaks
Benefits:
- Beneficial to wildlife - creates habitats for birds, pollinators, predators
- Aesthetically pleasing
- Long-lived (compared to fencing)
- Naturally filters wind resulting in reduced crop damage.
Limitations:
- Takes time to establish and become effective
- Annual maintenance/trimming required
- Root competition with adjacent crops for water & nutrients
- May harbour pests & diseases.
Explain “no-dig” system of managing raised beds under:
i) soil structure
ii) weed control
iii) soil-borne pests
i)
- soil structure is maintained as it is not disturbed or walked on - no compaction;
- Addition of lots of OM enables worms and organisms to work the soil and incorporate the OM into the soil without the need for it to be dug in.
ii)
- Perennial weeds s/b removed before starting;
- Use of cardboard and thick layers of OM suppresses weed growth;
- Remove any weeds that do appear by hoe or hand;
- Occasional persistent perennial weeds could be spot-treated with Glyphosate (last resort!)
iii)
- Pests can build up in a soil that’s not been dug - the pests are not brought to surface for predators;
- A good soil ecosystem may enhance the pests vs predator balance and suppress some pests.
- no-dig minimises the spread of pests and diseases between beds (result of walking on soil)
State typical length and width of a raised bed
Length - 3m
Width - 1.5m
Describe production of a crop of carrots under:
i) sowing
ii) thinning
iii) harvesting
i) (sow by Drill method)
- Feb to June (7ºC) - sow thinly in a continuous line
- Drills 1-2cm deep, 2.5cm apart, rows spaced 15cm;
- Drills can be watered prior to sowing, or after they have been covered and labelled;
- Can also be sown under cloches in Feb/March.
ii)
- Thin to 3-7.5cm intervals to enable crop to reach full potential at maturity;
- Thin in evening to reduce attracting carrot root fly
- Remove any thinnings to prevent carrot root fly smelling them;
- Remove smaller carrots and use as baby veg;
- Water remaining crop to re-firm into ground.
iii)
- Harvest 12-16 weeks after sowing;
- Water soil prior to harvest to prevent roots breaking;
- Carefully lift using fork or by hand, pulling gently by the foliage;
- Twist leaves off after lifting.
Describe how quality and yield of an APPLE tree can be determined by:
i) base dressing
ii) weed control
iii) mulching
iv) irrigation
v) THREE named training systems
i) - a base dressing high in Phosphorus (e.g. bonemeal) incorporated into planting hole at time of planting will aid establishment and production of healthy root system;
= high quality, high yielding tree.
ii) - weeds compete for nutrients and water;
- may harbour P&D - detrimental to growth;
- apple trees need moisture to swell the fruit = weed control is essential for quality and yield of fruit.
iii) - apple trees benefit from mulch of well-rotted farm manure/garden compost/composted bark 5-10cm around base of tree, covering planting hole area but not touching trunk;
- mulch conserves moisture, suppresses weeds and adds nutrients = higher quality and yield from tree.
iv) If not watered, plant will suffer drought stress = wilting, chlorosis, premature ripening of fruit. Good irrigation = higher quality and yield.
v)
Espalier
Step-over
Cordon
(Horizontal training of spur-fruiting trees encourages more flowers and fruit to develop = better quality and higher yield.)
Describe the production of STRAWBERRIES under:
i) ONE named cultivar
ii) ground preparation
iii) planting
iv) harvesting
i)
‘Alice’ (mid season)
ii) - primary cultivation (digging) in spring/late summer;
- remove weeds;
- incorporated well rotted manure or garden compost into soil;
- secondary cultivation in spring - raking roughly level, consolidation;
- apply general-purpose fertiliser e.g. Growmore 100g/m2 before raking to rough tilth.
iii) - Plant Aug/Sept, - space 30-40cm in row; 60-70cm between rows;
- spread roots out in planting hole;
- crown of plant must rest on surface of soil to avoid crown rot;
- backfill with soil and gently firm;
- water in well
iv) - harvest June-Sept on a dry day in the morning (more juicy!);
- pick carefully when red/pink all over;
- avoid bruising. Calyx s/b intact;
- discard any damaged/mouldy fruits;
- don’t pile too many on top of each other to avoid bruising/crushing fruit.
List FIVE methods used to extend productive season of outdoor crops
Cold frame
Cloche
Low tunnel
Horticultural fleece
Enviromesh netting
Describe a COLD FRAME with regards to extending the season for outdoor crops
Solid-framed structure made from brick or wood, with glass or polycarbonate lights;
Situated on soil or solid base;
Crops protected from early frost and enables crops to be over-wintered.
Describe a CLOCHE with regards to extending the season for outdoor crops
Structure placed or built on top of plants;
Solid frame with glass, plastic, polycarbonate cladding;
May need to be anchored to ground;
Protects late crops from early frosts and heavy/damaging wind;
Used to over-winter crops;
Can be small, for individual plants;
Individual cloche can be half a plastic bottle, e.g.
Deters pests (rabbits/birds)
Name FOUR veg and ONE fruit crop which would benefit from cold frames and cloches
Lettuce
Salad leaves
Beetroot
Radish
Strawberry
Describe how the quality and yield of vegetable crops are affected by WEED CONTROL
Weeds compete with crops for water, nutrients and light, resulting in reduced yield and quality of veg crops;
Weeds can act as hosts for diseases, e.g. Cardamine hirsuta; Capsella bursa-pastors;
Describe how the quality and yield of vegetable crops are affected by IRRIGATION
Veg crops need regular, even watering to swell crop, produce high quality veg, and maximise yield;
Irregular or over-watering may cause roots to split (e.g. carrots/parsnips) or tomato fruits to split - this reduces quality and yield of veg.
Describe how the quality and yield of vegetable crops are affected by THINNING
Thinning prevents overcrowding and create correct spacing (small root veg if packed too close together);
Allows for good aeration - reduces risk of fungal disease (damping off or Botrytis);
Remaining seedlings have less competition for water, nutrients and light - develop better;
Prevents plants becoming leggy;
Quality and yield of crops should be unaffected if thinning takes place.
Describe the production of winter cabbage under:
i) soil pH
ii) sowing
iii) transplanting
i) - cabbage requires soil pH of at least 6.5 to avoid possibility of clubroot, which is more likely on acid soil;
- low pH soil can be treated with lime or calcified seaweed to make soil more alkaline.
ii) - Sow April to May in prepared seedbed;
- sow thinly in drills, 1-2cm deep, 15cm apart;
- can also sow seed singly in modules outside;
- cover, label, water.
iii) - transplant young plants in June/July when they have 5-6 true leaves and 10cm tall;
- water well a day prior to transplanting;
- use dibber or trowel to make holes 30-60cm apart (depending on cultivar);
- puddle in, with lowest leaves at ground level;
- firm in well
Name host fruit and control measures for CODLING MOTH
Apple.
- Pheromone traps
- Nematodes
- Deltamethrin (insecticide)
Name host fruits and control measures for WINTER MOTH
Apple, plum, pear, cherry.
- Grease bands around tree trunk stop caterpillars
- Encourage predators (birds)
- Deltamethrin (inscticide) - last resort
Name host fruits and control measures for BLACKBIRD
Raspberry, strawberry, blackcurrant.
- Netting
- Fruit cage
Name host fruits and control measures for BIG BUD MITE
Blackcurrant, red/whitecurrant.
- Dig up and burn heavily infested plants
- Purchase certified stock plants
- Plant Blackcurrant ‘Ben Hope’ - only mite-resistant cultivar.
Name host fruit and control measures for SLUG
Strawberry.
- Nematodes
- Hand-picking and disposal
- Encourage predators e.g. birds, frogs, hedgehogs.
List factors to be considered when choosing top fruit (apple/plum) tree for small garden
Ultimate size of tree
Fruit type - dessert or culinary
Flavour
Plant quality - bareroot or container
Rootstock choice
Suitability for soil type
P&D and disorder resistance
Training style
Early, mid or late season?
Pollination compatibility & requirements - pollination groups?
Potential yield
Cultural requirements (temp/frost etc)
Explain successional cropping, and the benefit + one veg example
Sowing small amounts of seed at regular intervals, ensuring there are always plants coming into harvest during the season.
Avoids the problem of sudden glut of crops in a short space of time.
e.g. Radish ‘Scarlet Globe’
Sow from Feb to August “in situ”
(early and late sowings can be covered with cloche or fleece)
Sow thinly in short drills 1cm deep, 2.5cm apart, with rows space 10-15cm apart
SUMMER radish harvested from as little as 4 weeks from germination (2.5cm dia)
WINTER radish
- can be left in ground and dug up as required and eaten fresh;
- OR lift in Nov and store.
How to transplant from seedbeds
Done when seedlings reach suitable size - often with several pairs of true leaves;
Soil s/b moist before lifting, using a hand tool;
Handle plants by leaves to avoid stem damage;
Plant at appropriate spacing;
First leaves s/b just above soil level;
Firm in gently, and water;
Process needs to be done gently to avoid damage to root hairs;
Seedlings can be vulnerable to pests and weather - horticultural fleece may help whilst establishing.
Describe group sowing in blocks
Growing medium is compressed into a mould which forms cube-shaped blocks with a small indentation into which the seed is sown;
Made as required - range of sizes;
Precursor to modern module trays.
Describe sowing in modules
Trays composed of a number of individual modules;
Various sizes/numbers of cells;
Long root trainers for deep-rooted plants;
Allows tender veg a longer growing season - trays started under cover;
Individually sown, or several seeds per module (seeds then thinned);
Must be hardened off two weeks before transplanting to final positions;
More time-consuming than sowing into seedbed, but good for giving seedlings specific conditions - can develop without competition and planted out less susceptible to pests (larger and stronger!)
Cabbage P&D + controls
Cabbage root fly:
- wilting plants
- reddish leaves
- reduced growth/death
- use brassica collars and horticultural fleece
Cabbage white butterfly & pigeons:
- get eaten by caterpillars
- use fleece
Clubroot:
- roots become swollen and twisted, causing insufficient water uptake;
- plants wilt / impaired growth;
- remove and burn;
- add lime to increase pH;
- ensure good drainage;
- rotate crops;
- choose resistant cultivars e.g. ‘Kilaton’ F1.
Brussels sprouts P&D + controls
Mealy aphids:
- distorted foliage;
- treat with fatty acid sprays;
- encourage natural predators;
- remove old plants so they don’t host.
Brassica downy mildew:
- white fuzzy patches on underside of leaves;
- yellow discolourations on top of leaves;
- plant with wider spacings to encourage airflow;
- remove infected material and destroy;
- practise crop rotation
Runner beans P&D + controls
Slugs:
- love seedlings;
- use cloches, floating mulches
- remove by hand;
- copper tape, grit, crushed eggshells, beer traps, nematodes
Foot & Root Rot:
- fungal diseases;
- leaves shrivel and yellow;
- roots and stem bases turn brown & black - start to rot;
- lift and burn affected plants;
- clean water for irrigation;
- must use crop rotation!
Carrot P&D + controls
Carrot root fly:
- larvae tunnel into roots
- fence off 2-3 ft high, with fleece (higher than females fly);
- grow under insect netting, sealed all around the plants;
- use resistant cultivars e.g. ‘Flyaway’.
Carrot motley dwarf virus:
- mottling on leaves;
- plants become stunted and deformed, and root may not grow;
- aphids are likely carriers - control!
- protect from aphids (mesh cover);
remove any affected material and destroy.
Potatoes P&D + controls
Potato cyst eelworm:
- attacks roots and inhibits nutrient take-up;
- leaves yellow and die; yield is reduced;
- crop rotation;
- use resistant cultivars e.g. ‘Maris Piper’
- use only certified disease-free seed potatoes;
- weed regularly;
- destroy affected material.
Potato late blight:
- fungus and secondary bacterial infection;
- leaves brown and shrivel;
- stems blacken and collapse;
- tubers develop lesions, get infected, rot;
- earth up to protect wash down from leaves;
- avoid overhead watering;
- use resistant cultivars e.g. ‘Cara’
- dispose of infected foliage;
- use disease-free certified seed potatoes.
Beetroot P&D + controls
Cutworms:
- creamy-brown moth caterpillars;
- feed on roots and stem bases at night;
- leaves and stem bases visibly gnawed;
- slow growth & wilting;
- pick off caterpillars by hand;
- nematodes;
- pheromone traps
Damping off:
- fungi in soil - affects seedlings;
- roots and lower stems rot, then death;
- avoid most soil conditions;
- use good hygiene;
- ensure good air circulation around plants;
- avoid overcrowding - thin where necessary.
Onions P&D + controls
Onion fly maggots:
- white, 9mm long;
- burrow into bulbs;
- affects growth;
- yellowing outer leaves;
- protect with fleece - stops females laying eggs;
- remove and burn infested plants.
Downy mildew:
- several fungi - white threads on underside of leaves;
- thin out infested plants;
- ensure good airflow around plants;
- use resistant cultivars e.g. ‘Hylander’.
Leeks P&D + controls
Stem & bulb eelworm (nematode):
- stem becomes swollen and soft;
- leads to death in bad cases;
- lift and burn affected plants;
- avoid planting for 2 years in same place.
Rust (fungus):
- infects leaves - yellow/orange patches;
- leaves drop early if bad
- spread by rainsplash.
- allow good spacing;
- practise crop rotation;
- use resistant cultivars e.g. ‘Pancho’
Courgettes P&D + controls
Slugs:
- attack young plants
- remove by hand
- use cloches, floating mulches
- copper tape, grit, crushed eggshells, beer traps
- nematodes
Cucumber mosaic virus:
- yellow mosaic patterns, streaks, rings, spots, appear on leaves;
- distorted leaves and fruit;
- plant stunted;
- yields reduced;
- often spread by aphids - control aphids!
- weeds can harbour the virus - remove weeds;
- destroy affected plants;
- use good hygiene;
- use resistant cultivars e.g. ‘Defender’
Lettuce P&D + controls
Root aphids:
- feed on roots and base
- lettuce wilts in hot weather;
- ants may be present;
- use insect-proof mesh
- keep well watered;
- remove plant if badly infested.
Grey mould (Botrytis):
- fungal disease;
- patches of grey, furry growth;
- slimy rot of soft tissue + death;
- ensure good circulation of air around plants;
- remove damaged areas and infected material - destroy.
Radish P&D + control
Flea beetle:
- leaves covered in small holes;
- damaged areas turn brown;
- seedlings particularly susceptible;
- grow under horticultural fleece;
- keep soil moist;
- water in a Nitrogen-rich fertiliser to help crop outgrow the beetle.
Brassica downy mildew:
- white fuzzy patches on undersides of leaves;
- leaves turn yellow;
- root (radish) may turn brown;
- remove infected plant asap!
- don’t plant brassicas in same place as previous brassica crops (crop rotation!)
Cabbages - harvesting - when and how? + Storage?
From September onwards.
Cut heads off at bases
Cut a cross in top of remaining stem
Remove outer leaves - no damaged ones!
Storage:
Temps close to 0ºC - will keep several months;
Place on straw/slatted surface
Check regularly for decay
Can freeze, but slice/shred and then blanch first.
Brussels sprouts - harvesting - when and how? + Storage?
From August onwards.
Pick lower sprouts when size of walnut and firm and tightly closed;
Snap off at base where attached to main stem, with sharp downward tug;
Flavour better when sprouts have had a touch of frost!
Storage:
Can freeze if in good condition (blanch first!)
Picked sprouts store in fridge for several days;
Whole plants can be removed from the bed before ground freezes - hang in cool place.
Runner beans - harvesting - when and how? + storage?
Harvest July onwards (til first frosts)
- pick regularly once a decent size - at least 17cm long but still tender;
- if pods left to mature, flowering will stop;
- Store for a week in fridge
- can be frozen
- pods can be dried and used as haricots.
Factors to be considered when selecting a top fruit cultivar
Purpose of fruit - dessert, culinary
Flavour
Late or early season cropping
Potential for storage
Factors to be considered when selecting a soft fruit cultivar
Fruit type - cane, bush, vine, ground
Purpose of fruit - dessert, culinary
Flavour
Flowering time (most are self-fertile)
Early/mid/late season cropping
Potential for freezing
Other storage methods
P&D resistance
Environment - temp, soil etc.
List major types of soft fruit
Strawberries
Raspberries
Blackcurrants
Blueberries
Gooseberries
Grapes
List major types of top fruit
Apples
Pears
Plums
Cherries
Production requirements for top fruit (apples/plums)
Ground prep
Planting and support
Irrigation
Mulching
Maintenance
Formative pruning for tree shape and yield
Maintenance requirements for top fruit (apples/plums)
Thinning fruit
Top dressing
Pruning
Control of pests and diseases
Pollination requirements of top fruit
Apples are typically cross-compatible, but check which cultivars are compatible.
Triploid (e.g. ‘Bramley’s Seedling’) plants are infertile so need two other non-triploid trees nearby.
Triploid cannot pollinate other trees.
Crab apples are useful diploid trees, used for pollinating triploid trees.
Other diploid is Braeburn, e.g.
Apples - pruning when fruiting
Thin fruit as it develops - remove unhealthy/disfigured fruit
Fruits should end up 5-15cm apart
A June “drop” is normal
Branches may need support or tying up if heavily laden
Apple - one disease, one symptom, one control method
Powdery mildew:
- white, dusty, spreading patches of the fungus on upper and lower surfaces of leaf, buds, flowers and fruits;
- Plant tissue can become stunted and distorted;
- prune out affected shoots
- remove infected fallen leaves
Plums - one disease, one symptom, one control method
Silver leaf:
- Leaves develop a silvery sheen (fungus)
- Prune in summer before majority of spores are released - paint pruning cuts with wound paint.
Raspberries - one disease, one symptom, one control method
Grey mould:
- Grey/brown furry growth on leaves, buds and fruits.
- Use good hygiene - remove affected/dead/dying plant material promptly.
Blackcurrants - one disease, one symptom, one control method
Grey mould:
- Grey/brown furry growth on leaves, buds, flowers and fruits.
- Use good hygiene - remove affected/dead/dying plant material promptly - then destroy.
Strawberries - one disease, one symptom, one control method
Powdery mildew:
- Powdery, white coating (fungus) on tops and underside of leaves, also buds, flowers and fruits.
- Promptly prune out any affected material and destroy.
Plums - harvesting & storage
Aug to Sept
- pick carefully when fully ripe (soft when gently squeezed)
- de-stone and freeze
- make into fruit preserve
- keep for a few days in cool, dark place.
Raspberries - harvesting & storage
June to Oct (depending on type - summer or autumn)
- Summer fruiting harvested in July/Aug;
- Autumn fruiting harvested Sept/Oct;
- Pick carefully by hand on a dry day - early or late, when it’s cool;
- Should have a good colour, should come away easily laving core/plug behind;
- Discard any diseased/damaged fruit;
- Don’t pile too deeply on top of each other - easily damaged/squashed.
- fridge up to one week
- freeze
- make preserves
Blackcurrants - harvesting and storage
June to August
- cut whole strigs (trusses) when rich in colour, firm and juicy.
- fridge for a few days
- freeze trusses in bags
- or use immediately!
Strawberries - harvesting and storage
June to September
- on a dry day, in morning
- pick carefully when red/pink all over;
- Calyx s/b intact;
- discard any damaged/mouldy fruits;
- don’t pile too many on top of each other to avoid bruising/crushing fruit.
- eat ASAP (don’t store well!)
- can freeze for preserves, but don’t hold their shape
Carrots - harvesting - when and how? + storage
- Harvest 12-16 weeks after sowing;
- Water soil prior to harvest to prevent roots breaking;
- Carefully lift using fork or by hand, pulling gently by the foliage;
- Twist leaves off after lifting.
- Store in layers in boxes filled with sand;
- Cool dry place - last several months;
- Last several weeks in fridge
- If plot is well drained, main crops can be left in ground over winter and used when needed.
Courgettes - harvesting - when and how? + storage
Harvest when 10-15cm long - from around 2 months after planting;
- fruits with flower attached are freshest;
- cut from plant with sharp knife;
- handle carefully to avoid bruising;
- harvest regularly to keep plants cropping longer.
- Store for few days in fridge;
- Best eaten fresh.
Onions - harvesting - when and how? + storage
- Harvest after 12-18 weeks (when leaves have almost died back, but not totally!)
- Carefully lift bulbs with a fork.
- DRY before Storage - in sun outside or on glasshouse racks if raining
- dry for approx 2 weeks until skins are paper-dry
- store only healthy, undamaged onions in a cool, light, well-ventilated, vermin-free area
- store in nets, old tights, or hung in plaits or tied together
Leeks - harvesting - when and how? + storage
Harvest from August onwards, depending on variety:
(earlies = late summer
mids = dec-jan
lates = jan-April)
- loosen soil with fork before lifting;
Storage
- leave outside in soil to store
- OR dig v-shaped trench, place on side, cover white part with soil;
- OR can be stored in fridge for several days.
Beetroot - harvesting - when and how? + storage
Harvest - 7-13 weeks after sowing (depending on cultivar and size required)
- Don’t allow to mature larger than a cricket ball!
- grip stems to pull beetroot out and twist off foliage a little above the root;
- avoid damaging root - they will bleed!
Storage:
- will stay fresh up to 2 weeks in fridge;
- lift & store in moist sand-filled box protected from frost - should keep until mid-spring.
- also, can store in ground protected by 15cm of straw in MILD areas - but likely to go woody;
Potatoes - harvesting - when and how? + storage
- Harvest Aug-Oct
-Harvest when haulms have started to collapse;
- Cut haulms about 5cm from ground level two weeks before harvesting (and burn if in a blight area!)
- Lift by hand or with fork on a dry, sunny day;
- Leave 2hr in sun on soil for skins to dry prior to storage;
- Harvest all potatoes to avoid pest/disease problems in the future;
Storage:
- only main crop are suitable for storage and only if undamaged
- remove excess soil and store in hessian or thick paper sacks;
- store in dark, cool, dry, frost-free, vermin-free area (e.g. garage/shed)
Lettuce - harvesting - when and how? + storage
Depends on what type:
- loose-leafs - around 7 weeks;
- crispheads - around 12 weeks.
Loose-leaf harvested in one, or “cut and come again”
(trimming leaves straight across whole head but leaving a few cms will allow regrowth and harvest again later)
- other types prone to bolting if left in ground
- cut off close to base, or pull up plant and cut off root and lower leaves;
- should be refrigerated, but won’t store for extended periods.
Radish - harvesting - when and how? + storage
SUMMER radish best harvested young:
- as little as 4 weeks from germination (2.5cm dia)
- if left to grow too large they are woody and inedible
WINTER radish
- can be left in ground and dug up as required
- OR lift in Nov and store.
- Pull up as required and eat fresh!
- Can store in fridge for 1-2 weeks in a plastic bag lined with kitchen paper.
Describe how to sow onions
March to April:
Sow SEED (drills)
- space 1cm deep, 4cm apart
- rows 30cm apart
- thin out as required (to bulb size)
Sow SETS (spring)
- space 10cm apart
- rows 30cm apart
- tip of set just peeps above soil
- firm in to protect from birds
- weed regularly
- don’t overwater (require little water!)
- top-dress/liquid feed for overwintered bulbs
Describe how to sow leeks
Sow in seedbed - March-April:
Drills 1cm deep, thin to 15cm spacing;
- rows 30cm apart
- successional sowing works well
Transplant in May/June
- make a 15cm deep hole and place one seedling in it (NB seedlings must be 20cm in height!)
- don’t fill hole with earth - fill with water!
- some of the soil collapses into the hole
- plant then leave - soil collapses in over time
- gradually earth up as it grows - but not as high as to get in between leaves (don’t want gritty leeks!)
- keep well-watered until established
- weed regularly - add mulch
Describe how to sow beetroot
April to July
Seeds benefit from soaking overnight before sowing.
- sow 2.5cm deep
- rows 30cm apart
- thin to every 6-10cm when seedlings reach 2.5cm high.
- good for successional sowing (fortnightly intervals)
[Feb-March - bolt-resistant cultivars can be sown under cloches]
- water moderately every fortnight
- weed regularly
- top-dress with high N when growing
Describe how to sow seed potatoes
Plant in late April for main crop
- Plant out seed potatoes in narrow trench, 10-15cm deep;
- Space 40cm apart, 75cm between rows;
- Chitted shoots should face upwards;
- Cover with soil and water and label.
[earlies - plant late March & spacing 10cm less each way]
- Once shoots are 23cm above soil, “earth up” to cover all but top of foliage.
- Keep well watered
- Keep weeds under control
- Can survive light frost - straw if needed!
- Apply N-rich fertiliser to maincrops partway through season.
Describe how to sow lettuce
April-July - sow in succession, every 2-3 weeks.
Best grown in 10-20ºC - full sun.
- drills, in situ
- 1cm deep
- thin to 15-30cm
- some cultivars can be overwintered
- keep well watered
- weed regularly
[Can sow indoors in Feb - plant out in March when 5-6 true leaves present]
Describe how to sow radish
Feb to August “in situ”
(early and late sowings can be covered with cloche or fleece)
- Sow thinly in short drills 1cm deep
- 2.5cm apart
- rows space 10-15cm apart
[Can sow successionally as they grow fast]
[Good as a “catch crop” between rows of slow growers e.g. peas/potatoes]
- Thin to 3cm apart to prevent spindly growth - carefully pull up by foliage to avoid disturbing rest of crop.
- Remaining crop are firmed and watered after thinning.
Cabbage - soil requirements
Alkaline - over 7.0 pH (add lime?)
Well-drained
Moisture retentive
Organic matter
Brussels - soil requirements
Alkaline - over 7.0 pH (add lime?)
Well-drained
Moisture retentive
Organic matter
Runner Beans - soil requirements
Low N levels
Free-draining
Moisture retentive
OM dug in in autumn
Carrots - soil requirements
Prefers lighter sandier soil
Not too stony
Well-drained
OM in autumn
Potatoes - soil requirements
Rich, loamy soil - on the acidic side.
(Don’t like heavy clay soils)
Well-drained
Moisture-retentive
Organic matter
Beetroot - soil requirements
High N
Fertile
Free-draining
Moisture-retentive
Organic matter
Onions - soil requirements
pH above 6.5 - don’t like acid!
Low N
Lighter, sandier soil
Well-drained
Moisture-retentive
Organic matter
Leeks - soil requirements
High N
Well-drained
Moisture retentive
Organic matter
Best below 24ºC - keep well watered if hot!
Courgettes - soil requirements
Above 15ºC (not frost tolerant)
Well drained
Moisture retentive
Organic matter
Lettuce - soil requirements
10-20ºC
Medium N
Well drained
Moisture retentive
Organic matter
Radish - soil requirements
N-rich
Free-draining
Moisture retentive
Organic matter
State what is meant by the terms “top fruit” and “soft fruit”
Top fruits are tree fruits (mostly Rosaceae)
apples,
pears,
plums,
cherries.
Soft fruits are the “others” that grown on bushes, canes, vines, or ground.
Bush = Blackcurrants, Blueberries
Cane = Raspberries, Gooseberries
Vine = Grapes
Ground = Strawberries
State advantages of purchasing certified stock
Certification ensures plants are:
- free of viral diseases
- vigorous
- true to type (i.e. what grows up will be the cultivar you expected
Certification scheme for seed potatoes that ensures good quality and free of certain diseases: the Seed Potato Classification Scheme (SPCS)
[Also certification schemes for fruit species (trees, canes and some herbaceous) that help to ensure that stock is free of certain health problems, vigorous and true-to-type.]
FOUR methods of ensuring effective pollination in fruit production
Selecting the right cultivars that are compatible
Planting extra pollinators e.g. crab apples interspersed
Shelter belts/hedges to encourage pollinators and provide windbreaks
Do not mow lawns or use pesticides in the morning when pollinators are most active.
Explain pollination compatibility and incompatibility
Compatibility:
Different cultivars of top fruits that flower at the same time (or overlap) so are able to cross-pollinate each other.
Incompatibility:
Different cultivars of top fruits that flower at different times so are unable to cross-pollinate.
Self-fertile cultivars are able to pollinate themselves - they are compatible with themselves.
Cultivars that aren’t self-fertile are incompatible with themselves.
Explain diploid and triploid cultivars in top fruit
Triploid cultivars contain three complements of DNA and so are infertile.
Triploid cultivars are incompatible as pollinators but they CAN be pollinated by compatible diploid cultivars.
Triploids won’t work as a pollen donor.
Diploids are .˙. essential for cross-pollination in plants that need another plant with the same overlapping flowering period - whether that is another diploid or a triploid.
All self-fertile plants are diploids.
But not all diploids are self-fertile.
Triploid cultivars should ideally be grown with two other diploids - one of the diploids pollinates the triploid, and the two diploids pollinate each other.
Planting a top fruit tree - key points:
Site choice factors;
Ground prep;
Planting and support.
Site choice:
- sheltered, sunny site
- away from windy spot (discourages pollinators and result in poor fruit set)
- away from frost pockets (kills young buds & flowers - esp. plums)
Ground preparation:
- good soil structure
- adequate drainage
- ideally prepare two months before planting
- weed free.
Planting and support:
- plant bare root trees in autumn when the soil is still warm and the plant can acclimatise before winter;
- potted trees can be planted out at any time as long as the ground is not frozen or very wet
- planting when dormant is less traumatic and is recommended.
- fit supports and wires before planting, e.g. against wall;
- all trained fruit forms should be planted 15-30 cm away from the support (wall, fence or wires).
- dwarf and young, untrained trees need staking for support.
Pruning summer-fruiting raspberries
After crop has been picked/finished, prune out all the fruited stems at the base (these stems will look older and browner - don’t damage the new bright green stems!)
Pruning autumn-fruiting raspberries
In the winter, prune all stems down to the ground. New canes will appear in spring.
