Food Labelling

Question 1

Mandatory 🆚 Voluntary Food Labelling:

Answer 1

Mandatory:
• Energy value (kJ and kcal)
• Fat (g)
- Saturates
• Carbohydrates - Sugars
• Protein
• Salt (sodium chloride)

Voluntary:
• Monounsaturates & Polyunsaturates
• Polyols (used as sweeteners)
• Starch
• Fibre
• Any vitamins or minerals providing 15% or more of the nutrient reference value (NRV) is contained per 100g/ml, or per serving, depending which is smallest. For example: to declare calcium in 30g of cheese, the 30g serving must contain 15% x 800mg
= 120mg of calcium (800mg is the NRV for calcium).

Question 2

What are Reference Intakes (RIs)?

Answer 2

• Reference Intakes (RIs) are set by European law and replace Guideline Daily Amounts (GDAs) on food labelling.
• RIs show the maximum amount of calories, macronutrients and salt that should be consumed in a day.
• The term GDA suggested that these were specific amounts for people to aim for, so RIs are used instead to indicate that they are not targets.
• RIs are guidelines to help people make food choices and create balance in their diet.
• The % of RIs present in packaged food can be displayed either on the front or back of the pack - this is voluntary.

Reference Intake (RI):
• The amount of calories and nutrients the product contains is expressed as a percentage of the daily RI on the food label.
• RIs are based on an average-sized woman doing an average amount of physical activity.
• The RIs that can be used for food packaging for an average adult are:
Energy 2000 kcal/8400kJ.
Fat less than 70g of which saturates 20g.
Carbohydrate 260g of which sugars 90g.
Protein 50g. Salt less than 6g.

Question 3

Allergens:

Answer 3

• There are 14 allergens that must be highlighted if included as an ingredient or processing aid in pre-packed foods.
• Pre-packed foods must include an ingredient list on the label with allergen/s clearly identified by listing in bold, contrasting colours or by underlining them

Question 4

Food Labelling: Additional Warnings

Answer 4

Certain products require additional warnings on the label:
• Drinks with an alcohol content above 1.2%.
• GM ingredients above 0.9%.
• If the product has been irradiated.
• The words ‘packaged in a protective atmosphere’ if packaged using a gas.

Question 5

Free-from Foods:

Answer 5

Free-from Foods:
• If a label states a product is free from a particular allergen it has to be based on rigorous controls.
• All ingredients and packing materials must not contain the allergen. Cross contamination from other foods made on site must be prevented.

Gluten-free labelling is the exception:
• The food can contain 20mg/kg gluten.
• The statement ‘no gluten-containing ingredients’ is no longer allowed.

Question 6

Genetically modified organisms (GMO):

Answer 6

• UK/EU: Must label the presence of GMOs or ingredients produced from GMOs (if >0.9%).
• Not required to label food produced with the help of GMO technology; e.g. GM enzymes to clot milk for cheese or products from animals fed on GMO feed, e.g. meat, eggs
• Note: varied research links GMOs to infertility, immune issues, impaired insulin regulation and accelerated aging❗️
• GMOs are living organisms whose genetic material has been manipulated through genetic engineering (GE).
• GM crops are manipulated to be resistant to pests and pesticides.
• Europe and UK are officially GMO-free. USA freely uses GMO crops & foods❗️
• Any food from the US could be GM unless labelled as certified organic.
• Common GM crops: corn, rice, soya & cotton.

Question 7

Food Labelling: Organic

Answer 7

Retailers can label products organic if at least 95% of the product’s farmed ingredients are organic.

• Products can only be sold direct to customers in the shop.
• Must be certified by one of the organic regulatory bodies.

Question 8

Food Additives:

Answer 8

• Food additives are substances added to foods to perform particular functions; e.g. to prolong shelf-life, alter taste, texture or colour, to make food more appealing.
• Identified by a universal E numbering system with 6 main categories:
1. Colours E100s.
2. Preservatives E200s.
3. Antioxidants E300s + E586.
4. Emulsifiers, stabilisers, thickeners, gelling agents E400s + E322 & E1103.
5. Flavour enhancers E600s.
6. Sweeteners E900s + E420 & E421.

Question 9

Food Additives:

Answer 9

Food additives can be:
• Artificial: Made synthetically; e.g. Azodicarbonamide a flour ‘improver’, used to help bread dough hold together.

• Nature-identical: Manufactured copies of substances found naturally in foods; e.g. Benzoic acid found in fruit. The Nature-identical version (synthetic) is used as a preservative due to its antimicrobial properties.

• Natural: Found naturally within foods. They are extracted from food for use in other
foods; e.g. E100 Curcumin (Turmeric) and E162 Beetroot to colour foods yellow and red.

Question 10

E100s:

Answer 10

Colours E100s: used to make food look more appetising.

• Restore colour lost during processing (e.g. tinned mushy peas).
• Make existing food colours brighter (e.g. enhance the yellowness of custard or butter).

Natural colours include:
• E162 beetroot, E101 & E106 riboflavin, E160a carotenes and E100 curcumin.

Artificial colours include:
• E110 sunset yellow FCF, E104 quinoline yellow, E122 carmoisine, E129 allura red, E102 tartrazine and E124 ponceau 4R.

• Associated with hyperactivity and poor concentration.

Question 11

E200s:

Answer 11

Preservatives E200s:
• Slow down decomposition of food caused by air, bacteria, moulds and yeasts to prolong shelf-life.
• The antimicrobial properties are used to control contamination that may cause food-borne illnesses (e.g. botulism).
• Common preservatives include:
- E211 Sodium benzoate: used in carbonated beverages, fruit juices, pickles, salsa and dips.
- E220 Sulphur dioxide: used in dried fruit, fruit juice, pickled vegetables, sausages, cider, wine.
- E251 Sodium nitrite: in processed meats (e.g. bacon and ham). All three are linked to adverse effects (asthma & allergies)

Question 12

E300s:

Answer 12

Antioxidants E300s:
• These are used to decrease the chance of oils and fats turning rancid: vegetable oils, margarines, biscuits, cereals.
• Replace natural antioxidants lost in processing, extending shelf-life.
• Both natural and synthetic antioxidants are used.

• Common synthetic antioxidants include:

• E310 propyl gallate (PG)
• E319 tertiary-butyl hydroquinone (TBHQ)
• E320 butylated hydroxyl anisole (BHA)
• E321 butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT)

Question 13

E400s:

Answer 13

Emulsifiers, Stabilisers E400s:

Emulsifiers mix ingredients that would normally separate.
• Used in dairy-free milks and yogurts.
• Several emulsifiers, including polysorbate 80 (E433) and carboxymethyl cellulose (E466)
are associated with an increased risk of inflammatory bowel disease and colon cancer (mediated in part by disruption to the microbiome).

Stabilisers prevent ingredients from separating again.
• Lecithin, agar-agar, carrageenan and pectin.
• Used in ice-cream, margarine, dairy and dairy-free products, salad dressings and mayonnaise.

Question 14

E440s:

Answer 14

Thickeners, Gelling Agents E440s:

Thickeners increase the viscosity of foods and:
• Include starches, pectins and gums
• Are used in soups, sauces and puddings.

Gelling agents give a gel-like consistency and:
• Includegums,starches,pectins,agar-agar and gelatine.
• Are used in jellies, jams, desserts and yoghurts.
• E400 additives are linked with GI issues including: Bloating, cramping, nausea and flatulence.

Question 15

E600s:

Answer 15

Flavour Enhancers E600s:

• Used widely in savoury foods to make the existing flavour stronger.
• In crisps, salty snacks, processed meats, instant noodles, fast food, sports drinks.
• E621 MSG (monosodium glutamate) is linked to MSG syndrome
• Can cause symptoms including headaches, skin flushing, sweating, muscle tightness, numbness or burning in the mouth, dizziness, chest pain and heart palpitations. Shortness of breath and throat swelling require immediate medical attention

Question 16

E900s:

Answer 16

Sweeteners E900s:

• ‘Natural’ (stevia, xylitol) and Synthetic (aspartame, saccharin). • Categorised as either intense or bulk:
• Intense sweeteners: e.g. saccharin, aspartame, ace K, stevia. – Many times sweeter than sugar – used in small amounts.
– Often used in combination to create a ‘sugar’ flavour.
– Artificial sweeteners have adverse effects.
• Bulk sweeteners: mainly sugar alcohols; e.g. sorbitol and xylitol. • Used for structural, sensory and sweetness characteristics.
• More than 10g/100g requires a warning on the product label as can cause GIT upset

Question 17

Artificial Sweeteners:

Answer 17

Artificial Sweeteners (aspartame, saccharin, acesulfame K):

• Can raise insulin levels and affect insulin sensitivity.
• Over-stimulate sugar receptors, making healthy, less sweet options such as fruit and vegetables unappealing.
• Addictive and increase cravings for sweet foods.
• Cause DNA damage (mutations).
• Often used in combination to balance taste. Acesulfame K has a bitter aftertaste and is generally combined with aspartame and/or sucralose, heightening the toxic potential.
• Stevia (plant derived) is the safest alternative to sugar, but be aware of processed stevia products.

Question 18

Food Additives:

Answer 18

• In addition to the 6 categories discussed, there are a whole range of other E Numbers, including: Acidity regulators, anti- caking agents, anti-foaming agents, bulking agents, carriers and carrier solvents, flour treatment agents, foaming agents, glazing agents, modified starches, packaging gases, raising agents.

• Additives can be added to foods prior to manufacture;
e.g. colour added to farmed salmon to increase the redness of flesh; this would not appear on the label

Question 19

Natural Food Additives- safety concerns:

Answer 19

• E407 Carrageenan:
– Source: Extracted from red seaweed and industrially produced.
– Function: Thickening, stabilising and gelling agent in condensed milks and dairy products, jellies and nut milks.
– Effects: GI inflammation, bloating and bowel disease.

• E 330 Citric acid:
– Source: Naturally occurring in citrus fruit but as an additive is manufactured using cheap GM high fructose corn syrup.
– Function: Flavouring and preservative in biscuits, tinned sauces, fruit & vegetables; ice cream, cake mix, frozen fish.
– Effects: GM ingredients - potential hazards to health.

Question 20

Natural Food Additives- affect the nutritional value of food:

Answer 20

• E926 Chlorine dioxide:

• Source: Produced synthetically.
• Function: Bleaching and oxidising agent for flour. Bleaching of fats and oils, beeswax. Purification of water.
• Effects: Decreases vitamin E content.

• E220 Sulphur dioxide:

• Source: Produced chemically.
• Function: Used as a preservative.
• Effects: Impedes oxygen carrying capacity of haemoglobin. Destroys vitamin B1 in food.

Question 21

Food Additives:

Answer 21

Question 22

Food Additives:

Answer 22

Question 23

Food Additives:

Question 24

Food Quality - Packaging:

Answer 24

• Plastic packaging: plastic and cling film are common packaging for foods.
• Plastics allow leaching of chemicals into foods - Bisphenol A (BPA) is one such chemical.
• BPA and other compounds found in plastics are called xenoestrogens (chemicals that mimic oestrogen in the body).
• Xenoestrogens can bind to oestrogen receptors, disrupting normal function.
• They have been implicated in hormone-related diseases including certain cancers (e.g. breast, prostate), and fertility problems.

Plastics most known to cause human health issues include:
• PET (Polyethylene terephthalate) – used for soft drink, juice and water bottles and peanut butter containers.
• PVC and DEHA [Polyvinyl chloride, Bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate] – used in clingfilm, plastic squeeze bottles and cooking oil bottles.
• PS (Polystyrene) – used in Styrofoam food trays, egg cartons, takeaway food containers, disposable cups.
• PC (Polycarbonates) – used in plastic baby bottles and ‘sippy’ cups, sports water bottles, metal food can liners

Question 25

Food Quality- Irradiation:

Answer 25

Used to prolong shelf life using high energy electron beams, X-rays or gamma rays.
• Seven categories of food can be irradiated in the EU:
fruit & vegetables, cereals, bulbs & tubers, dried aromatic herbs, spices & seasonings, fish & shellfish, poultry.
• must be declared on the label, optionally showing the “Radura” symbol.

Question 26

Irradiation of Food Safety:

Answer 26

• During the process, compounds called ‘radiolytic products’ are formed, some of which are mutagens and carcinogens.
• Toxic chemicals including benzene (carcinogen), formic acid and formaldehyde can also be produced.
• Chromosomal abnormalities and cancer have been demonstrated in animals exposed to irradiated foods
• Despite this, food irradiation is still approved in the EU.
• Irradiation is said to make food safer by killing bacteria, yet toxins produced by bacteria can survive the process❗️
• Additionally, irradiation may have a mutagenic effect on bacteria and viruses that survive, leading to more virulent strains❗️
• Irradiation can be misused to mask unhygienic food production and allow sale of sub-standard food❗️
• The vitamin content of irradiated foods is reduced by anywhere between 2 and 95% (with vitamin B1 and vitamin C most affected)❗️
• The key purpose of food irradiation is to extend shelf-life, allowing extensive storage and long-distance shipping.

Question 27

Dietary Reference Values:

Answer 27

• Dietary Reference Values (DRVs) are a set of estimates concerning the amount of macronutrients, micronutrients and energy needed by different groups of healthy people. They are not set for highly active or unhealthy individuals❗️

Included within DRVs are four types of estimates:
• EAR (Estimated Average Requirement) – needed by a group (i.e. about 50% of people will need less and 50% will need more).
• RNI (Reference Nutrient Intake) – 97.5% of the population’s requirement is met.
• LRNI (Lower Recommended Nutritional Intake) – only 2.5% of the population’s requirement is met, i.e. most need more.
• Safe intake – used where there is not enough evidence to set an EAR, RNI or LRNI. An amount considered to be enough for most people but below a level that could have undesirable effects.

Question 28

Food Fortification:

Answer 28

Food Fortification: The addition of nutrients to food and drinks.

• Mandatory Fortification: all flour except wholemeal, self-raising and wheat malt flours must be fortified with:
– Calcium carbonate – 235-390mg/100g
– Iron – not less than 1.65mg/100g
– Thiamine – not less than 0.24mg/100g
– Nicotinic acid or nicotinamide – not less than 1.60mg/100g

• Voluntary Fortification: manufacturers can choose to add approved nutrients to foods except unprocessed foods and beverages containing more than 1.2% alcohol by volume.

Question 29

Food Fortification:

Answer 29

• Food Fortification is widely used to replace the nutrients lost during processing.
For example: iron, thiamine and niacin to white and brown flour; breakfast cereals (B vitamins, iron); margarine (vitamins A & D).

• The problem with fortification:
– Uses mostly synthetic ‘nutrients’.
– Doesn’t encourage healthy eating.
– There is no need to strip foods of nutrients.
– Portrays fortified food as healthy when it is not.
– Sugar-laden foods are often fortified despite their health risks.

Question 30

Dietary Assessment:

Answer 30

Food Composition Tables:
• Increasingly, food composition is provided by
nutritional databases and software programs such as: Cronometer, My fitness pal, Nutrition database, Nutritics, Fitday.

Limitations:
• Tables don’t tell you how much of a nutrient will be absorbed. Absorption varies depending on the individual nutrient status. Nutrients are often more efficiently absorbed when the body has insufficient amounts.
• Nutrient absorption can be affected by:
- Dietary antagonists – phytates, tannins, etc.
- Nutrient competition or enhancement.
- Malabsorption diseases.
- Medications.
- Poor digestive function.
• Foods are biological materials. Their composition naturally varies; e.g. the vitamin E content of pumpkin seeds can vary between 41– 620mg/kg.
• Food composition is affected by many different outside factors such as:
- Growing conditions.
- How the food is harvested, stored, processed and prepared.
• Original data for foods at all stages of preparation is seldom available.

Question 31

Dietary Assessment:

Answer 31

There are 3 main reasons for measuring food intake:
1. To evaluate the adequacy and safety of the food (public health).
2. To study the interrelationships between food intake and physiological function (research).
3. To assist with the diagnosis and treatment of diet‐related conditions (most relevant
for nutritional therapists).

Measuring food intake of individuals can be divided into two basic approaches:
1. Reports of foods consumed on specified days:
• Menu records.
• Weighed records.
• Estimated records.
• 24 hour recalls.

2. To construct typical food patterns:
   • Diet histories – longer periods; less detailed.
   • Food frequency questionnaires