FOM anki flashcards week 2

Question 1

What is the polarity of water?

Answer 1

Unequal electron sharing between hydrogen and oxygen leads to a dipole (partially positive H, partially negative O).

Question 2

What structure does water have?

Answer 2

Water has a bent structure (tetrahedral bonding angle).

Question 3

What are hydrogen bonds?

Answer 3

Bond between hydrogen (positive) and oxygen (negative) or other electronegative atoms. Essential for water’s properties.

Question 4

How does the hydrophobic effect work?

Answer 4

Non-polar molecules aggregate in aqueous solutions (e.g., micelles, lipid bilayers).

Question 5

Define amphipathic molecules.

Answer 5

Molecules with both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions (e.g., phospholipids in cell membranes).

Question 6

What is the primary function of cell membranes?

Answer 6

Selective barrier to the external environment, involved in signaling, transport, and recognition.

Question 7

What is the basic structure of amino acids?

Answer 7

Alpha carbon bonded to amino group (-NH₂), carboxyl group (-COOH), hydrogen, and R group (side chain).

Question 8

Classify amino acids.

Answer 8

Non-polar (hydrophobic), Polar (hydrophilic), Acidic (negative charge), Basic (positive charge).

Question 9

How are peptide bonds formed?

Answer 9

Peptide bonds form through dehydration between amino acids, with partial double bond character.

Question 10

Define protein primary structure.

Answer 10

Linear sequence of amino acids forming a polypeptide chain.

Question 11

Describe the secondary structure of proteins.

Answer 11

Local folding of polypeptide backbone (alpha helix, beta-sheet, triple helix).

Question 12

How is tertiary structure stabilized?

Answer 12

By hydrogen bonds, disulfide bridges, ionic interactions, and hydrophobic interactions.

Question 13

What causes protein denaturation?

Answer 13

Disruption of secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures due to heat, pH extremes, or chemicals.

Question 14

Describe the quaternary structure of proteins.

Answer 14

Arrangement of multiple polypeptide subunits into a functional protein (e.g., hemoglobin).

Question 15

What is the role of enzymes?

Answer 15

Biological catalysts that lower activation energy and increase the rate of biochemical reactions.

Question 16

Describe Michaelis-Menten kinetics.

Answer 16

Relates reaction rate to substrate concentration, with Km (half-maximal velocity) and Vmax (maximum rate).

Question 17

What are the types of enzyme inhibition?

Answer 17

Competitive, non-competitive, and uncompetitive inhibition.

Question 18

What is the pH scale?

Answer 18

Measures H⁺ ion concentration, with pH = -log[H⁺].

Question 19

What does the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation describe?

Answer 19

Relates pH, pKa, and the ratio of acid to conjugate base concentrations.

Question 20

Explain the function of buffers.

Answer 20

Resist changes in pH by neutralizing added acids or bases.

Question 21

What is the isoelectric point?

Answer 21

pH at which an amino acid or protein has no net charge.

Question 22

How is oxygen transported in the blood?

Answer 22

Oxygen diffuses into blood in the alveoli, and hemoglobin carries it to tissues.

Question 23

Describe the structure of cell membranes.

Answer 23

A lipid bilayer with proteins and carbohydrates, containing amphipathic lipids.

Question 24

What is the role of the lymphatic system?

Answer 24

Transport excess fluid (lymph) and foreign bodies to lymph nodes for immune defense.

Question 25

How do veins and arteries differ?

Answer 25

Arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins carry blood back to the heart.

Question 26

What is the function of the gastrointestinal system?

Answer 26

Digests and absorbs nutrients, processes them in the liver.

Question 27

How does the respiratory system oxygenate blood?

Answer 27

Air enters the lungs, where oxygen diffuses into blood and is carried by hemoglobin.

Question 28

How do lymphatic vessels work?

Answer 28

Absorb excess tissue fluid and return it to the bloodstream as lymph.

Question 29

What is the function of skeletal muscles?

Answer 29

Muscles contract to produce movement at joints.

Question 30

What is the difference between fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints?

Answer 30

Fibrous joints are least mobile, cartilaginous are intermediate, and synovial are most mobile.

Question 31

What are the features of synovial joints?

Answer 31

Include a fibrous capsule, synovial fluid, and articular cartilage; types include hinge, pivot, plane, ball and socket.

Question 32

What is the role of tendons?

Answer 32

Attach muscles to bones, facilitating movement.

Question 33

What is a reflex?

Answer 33

An involuntary response to a stimulus, tested in clinical exams.

Question 34

What is homeostasis?

Answer 34

The maintenance of a constant internal environment within a narrow range for survival.

Question 35

Describe feedback mechanisms in homeostasis.

Answer 35

Positive feedback amplifies changes (e.g., childbirth), negative feedback opposes changes (e.g., blood glucose regulation).

Question 36

How do X-rays work?

Answer 36

Use electric current to generate X-rays, which pass through the body; denser tissues absorb more.

Question 37

What are the strengths of CT scans?

Answer 37

Superior resolution for soft tissues, cross-sectional images.

Question 38

What are the weaknesses of MRI?

Answer 38

Expensive, time-consuming, and some patients experience claustrophobia.

Question 39

How does ultrasound work?

Answer 39

Uses sound waves to create 2D images, no ionizing radiation.

Question 40

Describe T1-weighted MRI imaging.

Answer 40

Tissues appear white with black details.

Question 41

How do bones develop?

Answer 41

Endochondral ossification turns cartilage into bone, especially in long bones.

Question 42

What are the types of fractures?

Answer 42

Fractures can be categorized by the type of break (e.g., simple, compound).

Question 43

Explain the structure of bones.

Answer 43

Composed of periosteum, epiphysis (growth ends), and diaphysis (shaft).