Folio 5 Observational Learning Flashcards

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1
Q

What type of behaviours and responses can we acquired through observational learning?

A

Responses acquired by observing what others do include physical routines (e.g. particular dance style), socially appropriate behaviours (e.g. shaking hands when being introduced to someone) and emotional reactions (e.g. fear at the sight of a spider)

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2
Q

Define Observational Learning

A

Observational learning occurs when someone uses observation of a model’s actions and the consequences of those actions to guide their future actions

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3
Q

What is a model?

A

A model is who or what is being observed and may be live or symbolic

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4
Q

What is a live model?

A

A live model is a real-life person who may be demonstrating. acting out and/or describing or explaining a behaviour

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5
Q

What is a symbolic model?

A

A symbolic model is a real or fictional character displaying behaviour in books, movies, television programs, online and other media

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6
Q

What is observational learning also known as?

A

modelling, or social learning

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7
Q

What is the social learning theory?

also known as the social cognitive theory

A

The social learning theory emphasises the importance of the environment, or ‘social context’, in which learning occurs

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8
Q

What does Bandura propose?

A

Bandura proposes that from the time we are born we are surrounded by other people displaying a huge variety of behaviours, all of which we are able to observe.

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9
Q

How do we learn through observational learning?

A

Through observation, we learn many behaviours, not by actually carrying out the behaviour and experiencing the consequences, but simply by watching the behaviour and its consequences being experienced by someone else

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10
Q

Finish this sentence

According to Bandura (1977b)…..

A

Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do

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11
Q

Is observational learning completely separate from conditioning? Provide evidence (bandura) for your answer

A

No, it is not, Bandura’s experiments demonstrated that both classical and operant conditioning can occur vicariously through observational learning. observing someone being punished or reinforced for their behaviour can make the observer more inclined or refrain from performing that action. If you see someone freak out at the sight of a spider, you may become scared when you next see a spider.

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12
Q

What is vicarious conditioning?

A

During vicarious conditioning, the individual watches a model’s behaviour being either reinforced or punished, and then subsequently behaves in exactly the same way or in a modified way, or refrains from the behaviour, as a result of what they have observed. ( Bandura uses the terms vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment to describe the different processes of vicarious conditioning)

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13
Q

What is vicarious reinforcement?

A

Vicarious reinforcement increases the likelihood of the observer behaving in a similar way to a model whose behaviour is reinforced. Thus the observer is conditioned through observing someone else being reinforced without personally experiencing the reinforcement

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14
Q

What is vicarious punishment?

A

Vicarious punishment occurs when the likelihood of an observer performing a particular behaviour decreases after having seen a model’s behaviour being punished

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15
Q

What does Bandura mean when he says that observational learning involves crucial cognitive processes?

A

A person does not simply ‘see’ and then automatically reproduce a behaviour without any intervening mental activity.

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16
Q

Do we have to see an individual perform the observed behaviour in order to know if observational learning occurred?

A

No, we sometimes learn through observation but what is learnt remains latent (unexpressed or ‘hidden’) without any immediately observable change in our behaviour simply because there is no motivation or need to reproduce it.

17
Q

How does Bandura’s social cognitive theory act as a ‘bridge’?

A

Bandura’s social cognitive theory is often referred to as a ‘bridge’ between the purely conditioning theories of Pavlov and Skinner and contemporary cognitive learning theories. This is because social learning theory encompasses cognitive processes such as attention, memory and motivation, as well as learning processes such as conditioning, reinforcement and punishment

18
Q

What is one important finding that occurred as a result of Bandura’s experiments that influenced the way we allow children to view certain content?

A

Bandura’s results indicate that observational learning can sometimes occur by simply viewing a model, even if the model is neither reinforced nor punished. This means that children can very easily learn and imitate behaviours from visual content such as watching a violent tv show. To avoid/ lower the impact that observational learning has of aggressive behaviour, classification codes were implemented on televised shows and programs to warn the viewer of the content of the film and the recommended viewing audience (e.g.15+)

19
Q

What is a cognitive representation?

A

A cognitive representation is a mental image or code of that they observe and experience

20
Q

Other than learning how we acquire or modify behaviour, what else can we learn from observational learning?

A

we learn by observational learning not only how to acquire or modify behaviour but also about what behaviours can be expected to lead to particular consequences

21
Q

What are the 5 processes of observational learning?

A
  • Attention
  • Retention
  • Reproduction
  • Motivation
  • Reinforcement
22
Q

Explain the ‘Attention’ process of observational learning

A

we must pay attention to or closely watch a model’s behaviour and the consequences. If we do not attend to the model’s behaviour, we will not recognise the distinctive features of the observed behaviour. And we may fail to notice the consequences.

23
Q

What factors can influence Attention in observational learning?

A

-The perceptual capabilities of the observer
- The motivation and interest level of the observer
-The situation in which the behaviour is being observed
-The characteristics of the model, such as attractiveness
(may also be affected by importance of behaviour, its distinctiveness and the effect it might have on us)

24
Q

What characteristics of a model can make us more inclined to pay closer attention and imitate?

A
  • The model is perceived positively, is liked and has a high status
  • There are perceived similarities between features and traits of the model and the observer, such as age and sex
  • The model is familiar to the observer and is known through previous observation
  • The model’s behaviour is visible and stands out clearly against other ‘competing’ models
  • The model is demonstrating behaviour that the observer perceives themselves as being able to imitate
25
Q

Explain the ‘Retention’ process of observational learning

A

We must be able to remember the model’s behaviour. Responses learned by modelling are often not needed until some time after they have been acquired. We need to store in memory a mental representation of what we have observed, and the more meaningful we can make the representation, the more accurately we will be able to replicate the behaviour when necessary.

26
Q

Explain the ‘Reproduction’ process of observational learning

A

We can attempt to reproduce, or imitate, what has been observed. We must, however, have the ability to put into practice what we observed. We must have the potential to be competent enough to develop the necessary skills to imitate the behaviour.

27
Q

Explain the ‘Motivation’ process of observational learning

A

The observer must be motivated to perform the behaviour; that it, they must want to reproduce what was observed. Unless the behavioural response is useful or provides an incentive or reward for the observer, it is unlikely that they will want to learn it in the first place, let alone perform it or continue to perform it

28
Q

Explain the ‘Reinforcement’ process of observational learning

A

Reinforcement influences the motivation to reproduce the observer behaviour and increases the likelihood of reproduction. There are 3 types of reinforcement; external, vicarious and self-reinforcement.

29
Q

What is external reinforcement?

A

External reinforcement is comparable to learning by consequences. Where the observer experiences consequences for imitating behaviour.

30
Q

What is vicarious reinforcement?

A

Vicarious reinforcement occurs indirectly by observing the modelled behaviour being reinforced without personally experiencing the reinforcement,

31
Q

What is self-reinforcement?

A

Self-reinforcement occurs when we are reinforced by meeting certain standards of performance we set for ourselves; e.g. the sense of pride, achievement or fulfilment. Self-reinforcement can also include negative reinforcement, e.g. avoiding a future of being bored in a mindless job may also be a self-reinforcement for achieving academic success.

32
Q

Why is reinforcement important in observational learning?

A

If the modelled behaviour is reinforced, this will motivate the person to repeat those actions: the next time, the person will expect the behaviour to be reinforced. If the behaviour is not reinforced, it is less likely to be repeated.

33
Q

How can our perceptions of ourselves affect our ability to learn by observation?

A

Our perception of a model and whether or not we pay attention to what they are doing, as well as the social context in which the modelled behaviour occurs, can be influenced by perceptions of our ‘self’. We are more likely to imitate behaviour if we have low self-confidence and low self-esteem, as compared with people who do not. Self-confidence and self-esteem influence our level of self-efficacy- our belief in our ability to succeed in particular situations.