Folio 2&3 Trial and Error learning, & Operant conditioning

Question 1

What is Trial and Error learning?

Answer 1

Trial and Error learning is a form of learning in which one response after another is tried (trial) and rejected as ineffective (error), until eventually a successful response is made.

Question 2

What are the 4 main points/areas of Trial and Error learning?

Answer 2

• Motivation: a desire to attain some goal
• Exploration: and increase n activity, either purposeful or random
• Incorrect and correct responses
• Reward: the correct response is made and rewarded

Question 3

What was Edward Thorndike’s experiment/study?

Answer 3

Thorndike performed studies on trial and error learning, his main experiment involved the puzzle box. Thorndike would place a hungry cat inside the puzzle box (with fish outside as a reward) and monitor its time to figure its way out of the box. The cat explored many ways to get out and eventually succeeded, and was aloud to eat the fish. This was done over and over again and the cat got faster and made fewer mistakes. He then made the Law of Effect. Operant conditioning is based off Thorndike’s Law of Effect.

Question 4

What is the Law of Effect ?

Answer 4

The Law of Effect essentially states that a behaviour that is accompanied or closely followed by ‘satisfying’ consequences is more likely to recur (and is therefore strengthened) and a behaviour that is accompanied or closely followed by ‘annoying’ consequences or discomfort is less likely to recur (and is therefore weakened).

Question 5

What is Operant Conditioning?

Answer 5

Operant Conditioning (term used by Skinner), also called instrumental conditioning (derived from Thorndike’s instrumental learning), is a type of learning whereby the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will be performed again in the future.

Question 6

What does the theory of Operant Conditioning propose?

Answer 6

It proposes that an organism will tend to repeat a behaviour (operants) that has desirable consequences (such as receiving a treat), or that it will enable it to avoid undesirable consequences (such as being given detention. Organisms will tend not to repeat a behaviour that has undesirable consequences (such as disapproval or a fine.

Question 7

What is an operant?

Answer 7

An operant is any response (or set of responses) that acts (‘operates’) on the environment to produce some kind of consequence. Essentially, it is behaviour that has an impact on the environment in some way. In turn, the environment provides an event that makes the behaviour more or less likely to occur.

Question 8

What determines if the operant occurs?

Answer 8

Since the consequence occurs in the environment, the environments determines whether or not the operant occurs.

Question 9

What is the three-phase model of Operant Conditioning?

Answer 9

The three-phase model, also known as the dbc/abc model was created to show the elements of the three way relationship between the behaviour, its antecedents (what happens before it) and its consequences.

Question 10

What 3 parts make up the three-phase model?

Answer 10

1. the Discriminative (or antecedent) stimulus: The environmental stimulus that precedes an operant response and indicates the consequence
2. the Response/Behaviour: Voluntary activity that has an effect on the environment
3. the Consequence: Reinforcement (positive or negative) increases the likelihood of the response being repeated. Punishment decreases the likelihood of the response being repeated.

Question 11

What is the difference between Operant and Classical conditioning?

Answer 11

In operant conditioning, if responses are not made, the consequence doesn’t happen. In classical conditioning, consequences occur regardless of responding.

Question 12

What are the Elements of Operant Conditioning ?

Answer 12

Positive/negative reinforcement, and Positive/negative(response cost) punishment.

Question 13

What is Positive reinforcement? provide an example

Answer 13

A positive reinforcement occurs from giving or applying a positive reinforcer (a stimulus that strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a desired response by providing a satisfying consequence) after the desired response has been made. E.g. giving a child a sticker for handing in homework on time.

Question 14

What is Negative reinforcement? provide an example

Answer 14

Negative reinforcement is the removal or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus. It has the effect of increasing the likelihood of a response being repeated and thereby strengthening the response. (A negative reinforcer is any unpleasant or aversive stimulus that, when removed or avoided, strengthens or increases the frequency of likelihood of a desired response.) E.g. Avoiding a speeding fine by driving safely and within the law.

Question 15

What is Positive punishment? provide an example

Answer 15

Positive punishment involves the presentation (or introduction) of a stimulus and thereby decreasing (or weakening) the likelihood of a response occurring again. E.g. Giving detention to students who misbehave in class

Question 16

What is negative punishment (Response cost)? provide an example

Answer 16

Negative punishment involves the removal or loss of a stimulus and thereby decreasing (or weakening) the likelihood of a response occurring again. E.g. Parents take away the remote to the TV for a week when children don’t do their chores.

Question 17

What are the 3 factors that influence the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment?

Answer 17

• Order of Presentation: it is essential the reinforcement/punishment(R/P) is given After a desired response, never before.
• Timing: R/P are most effective when given Immediately after the response has occurred
• Appropriateness: Punishments must be undesired and unpleasant to the recipient, Reinforcements must be pleasant and desired by recipient.

Question 18

What are the schedules of reinforcement?

Answer 18

• Continuous reinforcement: reinforcing every time the desired response occurs
• Fixed-ratio: A reinforcer is given after a set (unvarying number) of desired responses has been made
• Variable-ratio: A reinforcer is given after an unpredictable number of correct responses
• Fixed-interval: A reinforcer is given after a specific ‘fixed’ time has elapsed since the previous reinforcer
• Variable-interval: A reinforcement is given after an irregular period of time has passed since the last reinforcer was given

Question 19

What are the 5 key processes in Operant conditioning ?

Answer 19

1. Acquisition
2. Extinction
3. Spontaneous recovery
4. Stimulus generalisation
5. Stimulus discrimination

Question 20

What is Acquisition?

Answer 20

refers to the overall learning process during which a specific response, or pattern of responses, is established. In operant conditioning, acquisition is the establishment of a response through reinforcement.

Question 21

What is Extinction?

Answer 21

Extinction is the gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a conditioned (learned) response following consistent non-reinforcement of the response. partial reinforcement schedules such as variable ratio and interval are least susceptible to extinction. These are then followed by fixed ratio/interval, with continuous reinforcement being the most susceptible to extinction.

Question 22

What is Spontaneous recovery?

Answer 22

Spontaneous recovery is when an organism shows conditioned responses/behaviours after extinction. These responses are likely to be weaker and will probably not last very long. A spontaneously recovered response is often stronger when it occurs after a lengthy period compared to if it is recovered relatively soon after extinction.

Question 23

What is Stimulus generalisation?

Answer 23

Stimulus generalisation occurs when the correct response is made to another stimulus that is similar (but not necessarily identical) to the stimulus that was present when the conditioned response was reinforced.

Question 24

What is Stimulus discrimination?

Answer 24

Stimulus discrimination occurs when an organism makes the correct response to a stimulus and is reinforced, but does not respond to any other stimulus, even when stimuli are similar (but not identical)

Question 25

What are the applications of operant conditioning?

Answer 25

Shaping and token economies

Question 26

What is Shaping?

Answer 26

Shaping (also known as the method of successive approximations) is a procedure in which a reinforcer is given for any response that successively approximates and ultimately leads to the final desired response, or target behaviours. Shaping is used when the desired response has a low probability of occurring naturally. Shaping works by limiting reinforcement to only those responses that gradually edged towards the target behaviour, while ignoring all other responses.

Question 27

What are Token Economies?

Answer 27

A token economy is a setting in which an individual receives tokens (reinforces) for desired behaviour. These tokens have no value and can be collected and exchanged in specific quantities for other reinforcers in the form of actual, or ‘real’, rewards.