FOI Information

Question 1

(I. FOI. Task A: Human Behavior and Effective Communication. Part 1.)

What is the definition of human behavior?

Answer 1

The study of human behavior is an attempt to explain how and why human function the way the do. Human behavior is also defined as the result of attempts to satisfy certain needs. This approach emphasizes human development or the successive phases of growth in which human bevior is characterized by a distinct set of physical, physiological, and behavioral features.

Question 2

(I. FOI. Task A: Human Behavior and Effective Communication. Part 2.)

Tell me about human needs and behavior.

Answer 2

Human needs and behavior follows Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

SSSSS

S — Shelter, sleep, and food (physiological and biological needs)

This is the need for air, food, water, and maintenace of the human body. If the student is unwell, then little else matters.

S — Safety and security needs

Security needs are bout keeping oneself from harm. If a student does not feel safe, he or she cannot concentrate on learning.

S — Society needs (love and belongingness)

When individuals are physically comfortable and do not feel threatened, they seek to satisfy their social needs of belonging. Instructors should make every effort to help new students feel at ease and to reinforce their decision to pursue a career or hobby in aviation.

**S **— Self-esteem/self-respect needs

Humans get esteem in two ways: internally or externally. When esteem needs are satisfied, a person feels self-confident and valuable as a person in world. When these needs are frustrated, the person feels inferior, weak, helpless, and worthless.

S — Self-actualization

When all of the foregoing needs are satisfied, then and only then are the needs for self-actualization activated. Maslow describes self-actualization as a person’s need to be and do that which the person was “born to do.” To paraphrase an old Army recruiting slogan, self-actualization is to “be all you can be.”
Self-actualized people are characterized by:

• Being problem-focused.
• Incorporating an ongoing freshness of appreciation of
• life.
• A concern about personal growth.
• The ability to have peak experiences.

Question 3

(I. FOI. Task A: Human Behavior and Effective Communication. Part 3.)

What are defense mechanisms?

Answer 3

People use these defenses to prevent unacceptable ideas or impulses from entering the conscience. **Defense mechanisms soften feelings of failure, alleviate feelings of guilt, help an individual cope with reality, and protect one’s self-image. **

Defense mechanisms can be biological or psychological. The biological defense mechanism is a physiological response that protects or preserves organisms. For example, when humans experience a danger or a threat, the “fight or flight” response kicks in. Adrenaline and other chemicals are activated and physical symptoms such as rapid heart rate and increased blood pressure occur.

Question 4

(I. FOI. Task A: Human Behavior and Effective Communication. Part 3.)

What are some common defense mechanism?

Answer 4

DR—FDR—CPR

D — Denial

Denial is a refusal to accept external reality because it is too threatening.

R — Repression

Repression is the defense mechanism whereby a person places uncomfortable thoughts into inaccessible areas of the unconscious mind. Things a person is unable to cope with now are pushed away, to be dealt with at another time, or hopefully never because they faded away on their own accord.

F — Fantasy

Fantasy occurs when a student engages in daydreams about how things should be rather than doing anything about how things are.

D — Displacement

This defense mechanism results in an unconscious shift of emotion, affect, or desire from the original object to a more acceptable, less threatening substitute.

R — Rationalization

Rationalization is a subconscious technique for justifying actions that otherwise would be unacceptable. When true rationalization takes place, individuals sincerely believe in the plausible and acceptable excuses which seem real and justifiable.

C — Compensation

Compensation is a process of psychologically counterbalancing perceived weaknesses by emphasizing strength in other areas. Through compensation, students often attempt to disguise the presence of a weak or undesirable quality by emphasizing a more positive one.

P — Projection

Through projection, an individual places his or her own unacceptable impulses onto someone else.

R — Reaction Formation

In reaction formation a person fakes a belief opposite to the true belief because the true belief causes anxiety. The person feels an urge to do or say something and then actually does or says something that is the opposite of what he or she really wants.

Question 5

(I. FOI. Task A: Human Behavior and Effective Communication. Part 4, Sub-part 1.)

Describe normal student reactions to stress.

Answer 5

Some people affected by anxiety react appropriately, adequately, and more rapidly than they would in the absence of threat. Many, on the other hand, may freeze and be incapable of doing anything to correct the situation that has caused their anxiety. Others may do things without rational thought or reason.

Student anxiety can be minimized throughout training by emphasizing the benefits and pleasurable experiences that can be derived from flying, rather than by continuously citing the unhappy consequences of faulty performances.

The adrenal gland activates hormones, which prepare the body to meet the threat or to retreat from it—the fight or flight syndrome.

Normal individuals begin to respond rapidly and exactly, within the limits of their experience and training. Many responses are automatic, highlighting the need for proper training in emergency operations prior to an actual emergency. The affected individual thinks rationally, acts rapidly, and is extremely sensitive to all aspects of the surroundings.

Question 6

(I. FOI. Task A: Human Behavior and Effective Communication. Part 4, Sub-part 2.)

Describe abnormal reactions to stress.

Answer 6

Reactions to stress may produce abnormal responses in some people. With them, response to anxiety or stress may be completely absent or at least inadequate. Their responses may be random or illogical, or they may do more than is called for by the situation.

During flight instruction, instructors are normally the only ones who can observe students when they are under pressure. Instructors, therefore, are in a position to differentiate between safe and unsafe piloting actions. Instructors also may be able to detect potential psychological problems. The following student reactions are indicative of abnormal reactions to stress. None of them provides an absolute indication, but the presence of any of them under conditions of stress is reason for careful instructor evaluation.

• Inappropriate reactions, such as extreme over- cooperation, painstaking self-control, inappropriate laughter or singing, and very rapid changes in emotions.
• Marked changes in mood on different lessons, such as excellent morale followed by deep depression.
• Severe anger directed toward the flight instructor, service personnel, and others.

Question 7

(I. FOI. Task A: Human Behavior and Effective Communication. Part 4, Sub-part 3.)

What actions should a flight instructor take regarding seriously abnormal students?

Answer 7

A flight instructor who believes a student may be suffering from a serious psychological abnormality has a responsibility to refrain from instructing that student. To accomplish this, the following steps are available:

1. If an instructor believes that a student may have a disqualifying psychological defect, arrangements should be made for another instructor, who is not acquainted with the student, to conduct an evaluation flight. After the flight, the two instructors should confer to determine whether they agree that further investigation or action is justified.
2. **The flight instructor’ s primary legal responsibility concerns the decision whether to endorse the student to be competent for solo flight operations, or to make a recommendation for the practical test leading to certification as a pilot. If, after consultation with an unbiased instructor, the instructor believes that the student may have a serious psychological deficiency, such endorsements and recommendations must be withheld. **
3. In addition, a flight instructor has the personal responsibility of assuring that such a person does not continue flight training or become certificated as a pilot.

Question 8

(I. FOI. Task A: Human Behavior and Effective Communication. Part 5.)

Explain the basic elements of communication.

Answer 8

Effective communication is an essential element of instruction. An aviation instructor may possess a high level of technical knowledge, but he or she needs to cultivate the ability to communicate effectively in order to share this knowledge with students.

Communication takes place when one person transmits ideas or feelings to another person or group of people. The effectiveness of the communication is measured by the similarity between the idea transmitted and the idea received. The process of communication is composed of three elements:

• Source (sender, speaker, writer, encoder, transmitter, or instructor)
• Symbols used in composing and transmitting the message (words or signs (model prop/desk lamp in Figure 3-1))
• Receiver (listener, reader, decoder, or student)

At its basic level, communication is achieved through symbols, which are simple oral and visual codes. The words in the vocabulary constitute a basic code. Common gestures and facial expressions form another, but words and gestures alone do not communicate ideas. Ideas are communicated only when symbols are combined in meaningful wholes, as in ideas, sentences, paragraphs, speeches, or chapters that mean something to the receiver.

The feedback an instructor is getting from a student needs to be constantly monitored in order to modify the symbols, as required, to optimize communication.

Question 9

(I. FOI. Task A: Human Behavior and Effective Communication. Part 6.)

Explain barriers to effective communication.

Answer 9

The nature of language and the way it is used often lead to misunderstandings. These misunderstandings can be identified by four barriers to effective communication: lack of common experience, confusion between the symbol and the symbolized object, overuse of abstractions, and interference.

Lack of Common Experience

Lack of common experience between the communicator (instructor) and the receiver (student) is probably the greatest single barrier to effective communication. Communication can be effective only to the extent that the experiences (physical, mental, and emotional) of the people concerned are similar.

Confusion Betwen the Symbol and the Symbolized Object

Confusion between the symbol and the symbolized object results when a word is confused with what it is meant to represent. Although it is obvious that words and the connotations they carry can be different, people sometimes fail to make the distinction.

Overuse of Abstractions

Concrete words or terms refer to objects people can relate directly to their own experiences. Abstract words, on the other hand, stand for ideas that cannot be directly experienced, things that do not call forth mental images in the minds of the students. The word aircraft is an abstract word.

Interference

Interference, or the prevention of a process or activity from being carried out properly, is composed of factors outside the control of the instructor These factors include physiological, environmental, and psychological interference.

Physiological interference is any biological problem that may inhibit symbol reception, such as hearing loss, injury, or physical illness.

Environmental interference is caused by external physical conditions. One example of this is the noise level found in many light aircraft.

Psychological interference is a product of how the instructor and student feel at the time the communication process is occurring. If either instructor or student is not committed to the communication process, communication is impaired. Fear of the situation or mistrust between the instructor and student could severely inhibit the flow of information.

Question 10

(I. FOI. Task A: Human Behavior and Effective Communication. Part 7.)

Explain how communication skills are developed.

Answer 10

Communication skills must be developed; they do not occur automatically. The ability to effectively communicate stems from experience. _The experience of instructional communication begins with role playing during the training to be an instructor, continues during the actual instruction, and is enhanced by additional training. _

Instructional Communication

Instruction has taken place when the instructor has explained a particular procedure and subsequently determined that the desired student response has occurred. Instructors perform better when speaking of something they know very well and for which they have a high level of confidence. An instructor’s personal experiences make instruction more valuable than reading the same information in a textbook.

Role Playing

Role playing is a method of learning in which students perform a particular role. In role playing, the learner is provided with a general description of a situation and then applies a new skill or knowledge to perform the role. Experience in instructional communication comes from actually doing it and is learned in the beginning by role playing during the instructor’s initial training.

Listening

Instructors must know something about their students in order to communicate effectively. As discussed earlier, an instructor needs to determine the abilities of the students and understand the students to properly communicate. One way of becoming better acquainted with students is to be a good listener. Instructors can use a number of techniques to become better at listening.

Listening is more than hearing. Most instructors are familiar with the concept that listening is “hearing with comprehension.” When the student hears something being communicated, he or she may or may not comprehend what is being transmitted.

Questioning

Good questioning can determine how well the student understands what is being taught. It also shows the student that the instructor is paying attention and that the instructor is interested in the student’s response. An instructor should ask focused, open-ended questions and avoid closed-ended questions.

Instructional Enhancement

An instructor never stops learning. The more information an instructor knows about a subject, the better the instructor can convey that information and the more confidence the instructor will have.

Question 11

(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 1.)

What is learning?

Answer 11

Learning is a change of behavior as a result of experience.

Question 12

(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 1.)

Explain learning theory.

Answer 12

Learning theory is a body of principles advocated by psychologists and educators to explain how people acquire skills, knowledge, and attitudes.

Modern learning theories grew out of two concepts of how people learn: behaviorism and cognitive theory.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is a school of psychology that explains animal and human behavior entirely in terms of observable and measurable responses to stimuli.

Classic behaviorist theory in education stressed a system of rewards and punishment or the “carrot and stick” approach to learning. In modern education circles, behaviorism stresses the importance of having a particular form of behavior positively reinforced by someone (other than the learner) who shapes or controls what is learned rather than no reinforcement or punishment. In aviation training, the instructor provides the reinforcement.

Cognitive Theory

Cognitive theory focuses on what is going on inside the mind. It is more concerned with cognition—knowing, perceiving, problem-solving, decision-making, awareness, and related intellectual activities—than with stimulus and response.

Continued research into cognitive theory has led to theories, such as information processing and constructivism.

Information Processing Theory

Information processing theory uses a computer system as a model for human learning. The human brain processes incoming information, stores and retrieves it, and generates responses to the information. This involves a number of cognitive processes: gathering and representing information (encoding), retaining of information, and retrieving the information when needed.

**Constructivism **

This theory holds that learners do not acquire knowledge and skills passively but actively build or construct them based on their experiences. As implied by its name, constructivism emphasizes the constructing or building that goes on in a learner’s mind when he or she learns. Therefore, it creates a learner-centered learning environment in which learners assume responsibility for their own learning. According to constructivism, humans construct a unique mental image by combining preexisting information with the information received from sense organs.

Question 13

(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 2.)

What is the basis of all learning?

Answer 13

All learning comes from perceptions.

Question 14

(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 2.)

Explain perceptions and insight.

Answer 14

All learning comes from perceptions, which are directed to the brain by one or more of the five senses: sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. Perception involves more than the reception of stimuli from the five senses; it also involves a person giving meaning to sensations.

Both internal and external factors affect an individual’s ability to perceive: (G-P-E-S-T)

• Physical organism
• Goals and values
• Self-concept
• Time and opportunity
• **Element of threat **

Physical Organism

The physical organism provides individuals with the perceptual apparatus for sensing the world around them.

Goals and Values

Perceptions depend on one’s values and goals. Every experience and sensation, which is funneled into one’s central nervous system, is colored by the individual’s own beliefs and value structures.

Self-Concept

Self-concept is a powerful determinant in learning. A student’s self-image, described in such terms as “confident” or “insecure,” has a great influence on the total perceptual process.

Time and Opportunity

It takes time and opportunity to perceive. Learning some things depends on other perceptions, which have preceded these learnings, and on the availability of time to sense and relate these new things to the earlier perceptions. Thus, proper sequence and time are necessary. Time and practice are needed to relate the new sensations and experiences associated with stalls in order to develop a perception of the stall.

**Element of Threat **

The element of threat does not promote effective learning. In fact, fear adversely affects perception by narrowing the perceptual field. Confronted with threat, students tend to limit their attention to the threatening object or condition. The field of vision is reduced, for example, when an individual is frightened and all the perceptual faculties are focused on the thing that has generated fear.

Insight

Insight involves the grouping of perceptions into meaningful wholes. Creating insight is one of the instructor’s major responsibilities. To ensure that this occurs, it is essential to keep each student constantly receptive to new experiences and to help the student understand how each piece relates to all other pieces of the total pattern of the task to be learned.

Question 15

(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 3.)

Explain how knowledge is acquired.

Answer 15

Part of an aviation instructor’s job is helping students acquire knowledge.

MUC

**Memorization **

A student’s first attempt to acquire knowledge about a new topic amounts to memorizing facts about steps in a procedure.

**Understanding **

Understanding, or the ability to notice similarities and make associations between the facts and procedural steps learned, is an important next stage in the knowledge acquisition process. At this stage, the learner begins to organize knowledge in useful ways and a collection of memorized facts gives way to understanding.

Concept Learning

Concept learning is based on the assumption that humans tend to group objects, events, ideas, people, etc., that share one or more major attributes that set them apart. By grouping information into concepts, humans reduce the complexities of life and create manageable categories. Generalized concepts are more powerful than facts because instead of literally describing one thing, they describe many things at once.

Question 16

(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 4.)

What are the six laws of learning?

Answer 16

REEPIR

R — Readiness

E — Effect

E — Exercise

P — Primacy

I — Intensity

R — Recency

Readiness

The basic needs of the learner must be satisfied before he or she is ready or capable of learning. The instructor can do little to motivate the learner if these needs have not been met. This means the learner must want to learn the task being presented and must possess the requisite knowledge and skill.

Effect (emotions)

All learning involves the formation of connections and connections are strengthened or weakened according to the law of effect. Responses to a situation that are followed by satisfaction are strengthened; responses followed by discomfort are weakened.

Exercise

Connections are strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued, which reflects the adage “use it or lose it.”

Primacy

Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable impression and underlies the reason an instructor must teach correctly the first time and the student must learn correctly the first time. Relearning is more difficult than initial learning.

Intensity

Immediate, exciting, or dramatic learning connected to a real situation teaches a learner more than a routine or boring experience.

Recency

The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered. Conversely, the further a learner is removed in time from a new fact or understanding, the more difficult it is to remember.

Question 17

(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 5.)

What are the three domains of learning?

Answer 17

The domains of learning are a framework to help understand the major areas of learning and thinking. He first classified them into three large groups called the domains of learning:

• Cognitive (thinking)
• Affective (feeling)
• Psychomotor (doing)

Cognitive

RU-AC

R — Rote Learning

U — Understanding

A — Applications

C — Correlation

The four practical learning levels are rote, understanding, application, and correlation.

**Affective **“attitude change”

The affective domain addresses a learner’s emotions toward the learning experience and how change one’s emotions toward the learning experice.

Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain is skill based and includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires repetitive practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, and techniques. While various examples of the psychomotor domain exist, the practical instructional levels for aviation training purposes include observation, imitation, practice, and habit.

Question 18

(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 6.)

What are the characteristics of learning?

Answer 18

The ability to learn is one of the most outstanding human characteristics. Learning occurs continuously throughout a person’s lifetime. In spite of numerous theories and contrasting views, psychologists generally agree there are many characteristics of learning.

PEMA

P — Purposeful

Each student has specific intentions and goals. Students learn from any activity that tends to further their goals. Their individual needs and attitudes may determine what they learn as much as what the instructor is trying to get them to learn. In the process of learning, the student’s goals are of paramount significance. To be effective, aviation instructors need to find ways to relate new learning to the student’s goals.

E — Through Experience

A person’s knowledge is a result of experience, and no two people have had identical experiences. All learning is by experience, but learning takes place in different forms and in varying degrees of richness and depth.

M — Multifaceted

Students learn much more than expected if they fully exercise their minds and feelings. The learning process may include verbal elements, conceptual elements, perceptual elements, emotional elements, and problem-solving elements all taking place at once. While learning the subject at hand, students may be learning other things as well. This type of learning is sometimes referred to as incidental, but it may have a great impact on the total development of the student.

A — Active Process

The instructor cannot assume that students remember something just because they were in the classroom, shop, or aircraft when the instructor presented the material. For students to learn, they need to react and respond, perhaps outwardly, perhaps only inwardly, emotionally, or intellectually.

Question 19

(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 7.)

Explain the parts of the psychomotor domain.

Answer 19

Students make their way from beginner to expert via three stages of skill knowledge acquisition, helping students transition from beginner to expert. The development of any skill acquisition (or the learning process) has three characteristic stages: cognitive, associative, and automaticity.

Cognitive Stage

Since the student has no prior knowledge of flying, the instructor first introduces him or her to a basic skill. The student then memorizes the steps required to perform the skill. Performing the skill at this stage typically requires all the student’s attention; distractions introduced by an instructor often cause performance to deteriorate or stop.

Associative Stage

Practice is necessary in order for the student to learn how to coordinate muscles with visual and tactile senses. As the storage of a skill via practice continues, the student learns to associate individual steps in performance with likely outcomes.

Automatic Response Stage

By this stage, student performance of the skill is rapid and smooth. The student devotes much less deliberate attention to performance, and may be able to carry on a conversation or perform other tasks while performing the skill. The student makes far fewer adjustments during his or her performance and these adjustments tend to be small.

Question 20

(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 8.)

Explain the types of practice.

Answer 20

Once a student learns the skill, it is important to continue some practice to improve retention, but the power law of practice raises the question of whether or not there is a point at which continued practice no longer leads to improvement.

Deliberate Practice
In order for a student to gain skill knowledge and learn how to perform the skill on the automatic level, a student must engage in deliberate practice. This practice is aimed at a particular goal. During deliberate practice, the student practices specific areas for improvement and receives specific feedback after practice.

Blocked Practice
Blocked practice is practicing the same drill until the movement becomes automatic. Doing the same task over and over leads to better short-term performance, but poorer long-term learning.

Random Practice
Random practice mixes up the skills to be acquired throughout the practice session. This type of practice leads to better retention because by performing a series of separate skills in a random order, the student starts to recognize the similarities and differences of each skill which makes it more meaningful. The learner also is able to store the skill more effectively in the long-term memory.

Question 21

(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 9.)

Explain scenario-based training.

Answer 21

Research and practical experience have demonstrated the usefulness of practicing in realistic scenarios—ones that resemble the environment in which knowledge and skills are later used. Instructors must devise scenarios that allow students to practice what they have learned.

What makes a good scenario? A good scenario:

• Has a clear set of objective.
• Is tailored to the needs of the student.
• Capitalizes on the nuances of the local environment.

Question 22

(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 10.)

Tell me about errors.

Answer 22

There are two kinds of error: slip and mistake.

Slip
A slip occurs when a person plans to do one thing, but then inadvertently does something else. One of the most common forms of slips is to simply neglect to do something.

Mistake

A mistake occurs when a person plans to do the wrong thing and is successful. Mistakes are sometimes the result of gaps or misconceptions in the
student’s understanding.

Although it is impossible to eliminate errors entirely, there are ways to reduce them:

• learning and practicing
• taking time
• checking for errors
• using reminders
• developing routines
• raising awareness

Question 23

(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 11.)

Explain the parts of memory.

Answer 23

Question 24

(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 11.)

Explain forgetting.

Answer 24

Forgetting, which refers to loss of a memory, typically involves a failure in memory retrieval. The failure may be due to the decay or overwriting of information which has been temporarily stored in STM, but generally forgetting refers to loss of information from LTM. The information is not lost, per se, it is somewhere in the person’s LTM, but he or she is not able to retrieve and remember it.

Retrieval Failure
Retrieval failure is simply the inability to retrieve information, that tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon when a person knows the meaning of a word, or the answer to a question, but cannot retrieve it.

Fading
The theory of fading or decay suggests that a person forgets information that is not used for an extended period of time, that it fades away or decays.

Interference
Interference theory suggests that people forget something because a certain experience has overshadowed it, or that the learning of similar things has intervened.

Repression or Suppression

In repression or suppression, a memory is pushed out of reach because the individual does not want to remember the feelings associated with it.

Question 25

(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 12.)

Explain retention and learning.

Answer 25

Each of the theories of forgetting implies that when a person forgets something, it is not actually lost. Rather, it is simply unavailable for recall. The instructor’s problem is how to make certain that the student’s learning is readily available for recall.

Praise Stimulates Remembering

• Responses that give a pleasurable return tend to be repeated.

Recall Is Promoted by Association

• Each bit of information or action, which is associated with something to be learned, tends to facilitate its later recall by the student.

Favorable Attitudes Aid Retention

• The most effective motivation is based on positive or rewarding objectives.

Learning With All Senses Is Most Effective

• Law of Intensity

Meaningful Repetition Aids Recall

• Each repetition gives the student an opportunity to gain a clearer and more accurate perception of the subject to be learned, but mere repetition does not guarantee retention.

Mnemonics

Question 26

(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 13.)

Explain the transfer of learning.

Answer 26

Near transfer consists of transfer from initial learning that is situated in a given setting to ones that are closely related. Far transfer refers both to the ability to use what was learned in one setting to a different one as well as the ability to solve novel problems that share a common structure with the knowledge initially acquired.

During a learning experience, things learned previously usually aid the student, but sometimes previous learning interferes with the current learning task. Consider the learning of two skills. If the learning of skill A helps to learn skill B, positive transfer occurs. If learning skill A hinders the learning of skill B, negative transfer occurs.

• For example, the practice of slow flight (skill A) helps Beverly learn short-field landings (skill B). However, practice in making a landing approach in an airplane (skill A) may hinder learning to make an approach in a helicopter (skill B).

Question 27

(I. FOI. Task C: The Learning Process. Part 1.)

Explain how to prepare a lesson.

Answer 27

A determination of objectives and standards is necessary before any important instruction can be presented. Although some schools and independent instructors may develop their own syllabus, in practice, many instructors use a commercially developed syllabus that already has been selected by a school for use in their aviation training program. For the aviation instructor, the objectives listed in the syllabus are a beginning point for instruction.
Training Objectives and Standards
Aviation training involves two types of objectives: performance based and decision based. Performance-based objectives are essential in defining exactly what needs to be done and how it is done during each lesson.

Decision-based training objectives allow for a more dynamic training environment and are ideally suited to scenario type training.

Having decided on the objectives, an instructor can use this information to complete many of the steps on the lesson plan. For example, once the instructor decides how the student will accomplish the objective, most of the work that determines the elements of the lesson and the schedule of events has been done.

Question 28

(I. FOI. Task C: The Learning Process. Part 2.)

Explain how to organize material.

Answer 28

Even the most knowledgeable instructor must properly organize the material. The traditional organization of a lesson plan is introduction, development, and conclusion.

Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for everything to come. In brief, the introduction is made up of three elements: attention, motivation, and an overview of what is to be covered.
Attention

The purpose of the attention element is to focus each student’s attention on the lesson.

Development

Development is the main part of the lesson. Here, the instructor develops the subject matter in a manner that helps the students achieve the desired learning outcomes. The instructor must logically organize the material to show the relationships of the main points. The instructor usually shows these primary relationships by developing the main points in one of the following ways: from past to present, simple to complex, known to unknown, and most frequently used to least used.

Development depends on student learning style.

Conclusion

An effective conclusion retraces the important elements of the lesson and relates them to the objective. This review and wrap-up of ideas reinforces student learning and improves the retention of what has been learned. New ideas should not be introduced in the conclusion because at this point they are likely to confuse the students.

The conclusion should include completion standard.

Question 29

(I. FOI. Task C: The Learning Process. Part 3.)

Explaining the training delivery methods.

Answer 29

Today’s instructor can choose from a wealth of ways to present instructional material: lecture, discussion, guided discussion, problem based, group learning, demonstration- performance, or e-learning. It is important to remember that a training delivery method is rarely used by itself. In a typical lesson, an effective instructor normally uses a combination of methods.

Lecture Method

In the lecture method, the instructor delivers his knowledge via lectures to students who are more or less silent participants. Lectures are best used when an instructor wishes to convey a general understanding of a subject that students lack.

Formal Lecture . . .

Teaching Lecture

The teaching lecture is favored by aviation instructors because it allows some active participation by the students. Teaching lecture generally begins with a lecture and ends with discussion.

Guided Discussion Method

The guided discussion method relies on student possession of a level of knowledge about the topic to be discussed, either through reading prior to class or a short lecture to set up the topic to be discussed. This training method employs instructor-guided discussion with the instructor maintaining control of the discussion. It can be used during classroom periods and preflight and postflight briefings. The discussions reflect whatever level of knowledge and experience the students have gained.

In the guided discussion, learning is achieved through the skillful use of questions.

Characteristics of an Effective Question

• Has a specific purpose
• Is clear in meaning
• Contains a single idea
• Stimulates thought
• Requires definite answers
• Relates to previously covered information

Discussion Method

The discussion method modifies the pure lecture form by using lecture and then discussion to actively integrate the student into the learning process.

Computer-Assisted Learning (CAL) Method

Computer-assisted learning (CAL) couples the personal computer (PC) with multimedia software to create a training device. For example, major aircraft manufacturers have developed CAL programs to teach aircraft systems and maintenance procedures to their employees, reducing the amount of manpower necessary to train aircrews and maintenance technicians on the new equipment.

Demonstration-Performance Method

In this method, students observe the skill and then try to reproduce it. It is well suited for the flight instructor who uses it in teaching piloting skills.

Demonstration Performance Method

• Explanation
• Demonstration
  
  • Instructor tells - Instructor does
• Student Performance
  
  • Student tells - Instructor does
• Instructor Supervision
  
  • Student tells - Student does
• Evaluation
  
  • Student does - Instructor evaluates

Explanation Phase

Explanations must be clear, pertinent to the objectives of the particular lesson to be presented, and based on the known experience and knowledge of the students.

Demonstration Phase

The instructor must show students the actions necessary to perform a skill. As little extraneous activity as possible should be included in the demonstration if students are to clearly understand the instructor is accurately performing the actions previously explained. If, due to some unanticipated
circumstances, the demonstration does not closely conform to the explanation, this deviation should be immediately acknowledged and explained.

Student Performance and Instructor Supervision Phases

Student performance requires students to act and do. To learn skills, students must practice. The instructor must, therefore, allot enough time for meaningful student activity. Through doing, students learn to follow correct procedures and to reach established standards. It is important that students be given an opportunity to perform the skill as soon as possible after a demonstration. In flight training, the instructor may allow the student to follow along on the controls during the demonstration of a maneuver. Immediately thereafter, the instructor should have the student attempt to perform the maneuver, coaching as necessary. In the opening scenario, students performed a task (weight and balance computation) as a group, and prior to terminating the performance phase, they were allowed to independently complete the task at least once with supervision and coaching as necessary.

Evaluation Phase

In this phase, the instructor judges student performance. The student displays whatever competence has been attained, and the instructor discovers just how well the skill has been learned. To test each student’s ability to perform, the instructor requires students to work independently throughout this phase and makes some comment about how each performed the skill relative to the way it was taught. From this measurement of student achievement, the instructor determines the effectiveness of the instruction.

Drill and Practice Method

This is related to the law of exercise. It promotes learning through repetition because those things most often repeated are best remembered. Students do not learn to weld during one shop period or to perform crosswind landings during one instructional flight. They learn by applying what they have been told and shown. Every time practice occurs, learning continues. The instructor must provide opportunities for students to practice and, at the same time, make sure that this process is directed toward a learning objective.

Conclusion

A successful instructor needs to be familiar with as many teaching methods as possible. Although lecture and demonstration-performance may be the methods used most often, being aware of other methods and teaching tools such as guided discussion, cooperative learning, and computer- assisted learning better prepares an instructor for a wide variety of teaching situations.

Question 30

(I. FOI. Task C: The Learning Process. Part 4.)

Explaining problem based learning.

Answer 30

Problem based learning is defined as the type of learning environment in which lessons are structured in such a way as to confront students with problems encountered in real life that force them to reach real world solutions.
PBL starts with a carefully constructed problem to which there is no single solution. The benefit of PBL lies in helping the learner gain a deeper understanding of the information and in the learner improving his or her ability to recall the information. This results when the material is presented as an authentic problem in a situated environment that allows the learner to “make meaning” of the information based on his or her past experience and personal interpretation. This type of problem encourages the development of HOTS, which include cognitive processes such as problem solving and decision-making, as well as the cognitive skills of analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
Developing good problems that motivate, focus, and initiate student learning are an important component of PBL.

Effective problems:

• Relate to the real world so students want to solve them.
• Require students to make decisions.
• Are open ended and not limited to one correct answer.
• Are connected to previously learned knowledge as well as new knowledge.
• Reflect lesson objective(s).
• Challenge students to think critically.

Every lesson should end in a scenario.

Question 31

(I. FOI. Task C: The Learning Process. Part 5.)

Explain instruction aids and training technologies.

Answer 31

Instructional aids are devices that assist an instructor in the teaching-learning process. Instructional aids are not self- supporting; they support, supplement, or reinforce what is being taught.

In school settings, instructors may become involved in the selection and preparation of instructional aids, but they often are already in place. For the independent instructor setting, the instructor may need to select and prepare instructional aids.

Some of the most common and economical aids are chalk or marker boards, and supplemental print materials, including charts, diagrams, and graphs. Other aids, which are usually more expensive, are projected materials, video, computer- based programs, and models, mock-ups, or cut-aways.

Question 32

(I. FOI. Task D: Assessment and Critique. Part 1.)

1. Assessment:
   a. Purpose of assessment.
   b. General characteristics of effective assessment.
   c. Traditional assessment.
   d. Authentic assessment.
   e. Oral assessment.
   f. Characteristics of effective questions.
   g. Types of questions to avoid.

Answer 32

Assessment is an essential and continuous (ongoing) component of the teaching and learning processes. An effective assessment provides critical information to both the instructor and the student.

Objective

A good assessment provides practical and specific feedback to students, including direction and guidance on how to raise their level of performance. Most importantly, a well- designed and effective assessment process contributes to the development of aeronautical decision-making and judgment skills by helping develop the student’s ability to evaluate his or her own knowledge and performance accurately.

General characteristics of effective assessment

Objective
The effective assessment is objective, and focused on student performance. It should not reflect the personal opinions, likes, dislikes, or biases of the instructor.

Flexible
The instructor must evaluate the entire performance of a student in the context in which it is accomplished. The instructor must fit the tone, technique, and content of the assessment to the occasion, as well as to the student.

Acceptable
The student must accept the instructor in order to accept his or her assessment willingly. Students must have confidence in the instructor’s qualifications, teaching ability, sincerity, competence, and authority. Assessments must be presented fairly, with authority, conviction, sincerity, and from a position of recognizable competence.

Comprehensive
A comprehensive assessment is not necessarily a long one, nor must it treat every aspect of the performance in detail. The instructor must decide whether the greater benefit comes from a discussion of a few major points or a number of minor points. The instructor might assess what most needs improvement, or only what the student can reasonably be expected to improve.

Constructive
An assessment is pointless unless the student benefits from it. When identifying a mistake or weakness, the instructor must give positive guidance for correction.

Organized
An assessment must be organized. Almost any pattern is acceptable, as long as it is logical and makes sense to the student. An effective organizational pattern might be the sequence of the performance itself.

Thoughtful
An effective assessment reflects the instructor’s thoughtfulness toward the student’s need for self-esteem, recognition, and approval.

Specific
The instructor’s comments and recommendations should be specific. Students cannot act on recommendations unless they know specifically what the recommendations are.

Traditional Assessment

Traditional assessment generally refers to written testing, such as multiple choice, matching, true/false, fill in the blank, etc. Written assessments must typically be completed within a specific amount of time. There is a single, correct response for each item. The assessment, or test, assumes that all students should learn the same thing, and relies on rote memorization of facts.

Authentic Assessment

Authentic assessment is a type of assessment in which the student is asked to perform real-world tasks, and demonstrate a meaningful application of skills and competencies.

Oral Assessment

The most common means of assessment is direct or indirect oral questioning of students by the instructor. Questions may be loosely classified as fact questions and HOTS questions. The answer to a fact question is based on memory or recall. This type of question usually concerns who, what, when, and where. HOTS questions involve why or how, and require the student to combine knowledge of facts with an ability to analyze situations, solve problems, and arrive at conclusions.
Proper quizzing by the instructor can have a number of desirable results:

• Reveals the effectiveness of the instructor’s training methods
• Checks student retention of what has been learned
• Reviews material already presented to the student
• Can be used to retain student interest and stimulate thinking
• Emphasizes the important points of training
• Identifies points that need more emphasis
• Checks student comprehension of what has been learned
• Promotes active student participation, which is important to effective learning

Characteristics of Effective Questions

The instructor should devise and write pertinent questions in advance. One method is to place them in the lesson plan.

To be effective, questions must:

• Apply to the subject of instruction.
• Be brief and concise, but also clear and definite.
• Be adapted to the ability, experience, and stage of training of the students.
• Center on only one idea (limited to who, what, when, where, how, or why, not a combination).
• Present a challenge to the students.

Types of Questions To Avoid

Effective quizzing does not ever include yes/no questions such as “Do you understand?” or “Do you have any questions?” Instructors should also avoid the following types of questions:

• Puzzle—“What is the first action you should take if a conventional gear airplane with a weak right brake is swerving left in a right crosswind during a full flap, power-on wheel landing?”
• Oversize—“What do you do before beginning an engine overhaul?”
• Toss-up—“In an emergency, should you squawk 7700 or pick a landing spot?”
• Bewilderment—“In reading the altimeter—you know you set a sensitive altimeter for the nearest station pressure—if you take temperature into account, as when flying from a cold air mass through a warm front, what precaution should you take when in a mountainous area?”
• Trick questions—these questions cause the students to develop the feeling that they are engaged in a battle of wits with the instructor, and the whole significance of the subject of the instruction involved is lost. An example of a trick question would be one in which the response options are 1, 2, 3, and 4, but they are placed in the following form.
• A. 4 B. 3 C. 2 D. 1
• Irrelevant questions—diversions that introduce only unrelated facts and thoughts and slow the student’s progress. Questions unrelated to the test topics are not helpful in evaluating the student’s knowledge of the subject at hand. An example of an irrelevant question would be to ask a question about tire inflation during a test on the timing of magnetos.

Question 33

(I. FOI. Task D: Assessment and Critique. Part 2.)

2. Critique:
   a. Instructors/student critique.
   b. Student-lead critique.
   c. Small group critique.
   d. Individual student critique by another student.
   e. Self-critique.
   f. Written critique.

Answer 33

An effective critique considers good as well as bad performance, the individual parts, relationships of the individual parts, and the overall performance. A critique can and usually should be as varied in content as the performance being evaluated.

There are several useful ways to conduct a critique:

Instructor/Student Critique

The instructor leads a group discussion in an instructor/ student critique in which members of the class are invited to offer criticism of a performance. This method should be controlled carefully and directed with a clear purpose. It should be organized, and not allowed to degenerate into a random free-for-all.

Student-Led Critique

The instructor asks a student to lead the assessment in a student-led critique.

Small Group Critique

For the small group critique, the class is divided into small groups, each assigned a specific area to analyze. Each group must present its findings to the class. It is desirable for the instructor to furnish the criteria and guidelines. The combined reports from the groups can result in a comprehensive assessment.

Individual Student Critique by Another Student

The instructor may require another student to present the entire assessment. A variation is for the instructor to ask a number of students questions about the manner and quality of performance.

Self-Critique

A student critiques personal performance in a self-critique. Like all other methods, a self-critique must be controlled and supervised by the instructor.

Written Critique

A written critique has three advantages. First, the instructor can devote more time and thought to it than to an oral assessment in the classroom. Second, students can keep written assessments and refer to them whenever they wish. Third, when the instructor requires all students to write an assessment of a performance, the student-performer has the permanent record of the suggestions, recommendations,
and opinions of all the other students. The disadvantage of a written assessment is that other members of the class do not benefit.

Question 34

(I. FOI. Task E: Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism. Part 2.)

2. Flight instructor responsibilities:
   a. Physiological obstacles for flight students.
   b. Ensuring student ability.

Answer 34

Flight Instructor Responsibilities

Learning to fly should provide students with an opportunity for exploration and experimentation. It should be a habit- building period during which students devote their attention, memory, and judgment to the development of correct habit patterns. All aviation instructors shoulder an enormous responsibility because their students will ultimately be flying, servicing, or repairing aircraft, but flight instructors have the additional responsibilities of evaluating student pilots and making a decision of when they are ready to solo. The flight instructor’s job is to “mold” the student pilot into a safe pilot who takes a professional approach to flying. Other flight instructor responsibilities can be found in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 61 and FAA advisory circulars (ACs).

Additional Responsibilities of Flight Instructors:

• Evaluation of student piloting ability
• Pilot supervision Practical test recommendations
• Flight instructor endorsements
• Additional training and endorsements
• Pilot proficiency
• See and avoid responsibility
• Student’s pre-solo flight thought process

Physiological Obstacles for Flight Students

Students may react to unfamiliar noises or vibrations, or experience unfamiliar sensations due to G- force, or an uncomfortable feeling in the stomach. To teach effectively, instructors cannot ignore the existence of these negative factors, nor should they ridicule students who are adversely affected. These negative sensations can usually be overcome by understanding the nature of their causes. Remember, a sick student does not learn well.

Ensuring Student Skill Set

Flight instructors must ensure student pilots develop the required skills and knowledge prior to solo flight.

My student must be able to:

1. Make competent go/no-go decisions for every flight.
2. Determine the lcation of all other traffic while in pattern.
3. Establish and maintain a stabilized approach.
4. Determine wind direction and make proper rudder/aileron inputs.
5. Manage the aircraft’s energy so landings occur at the touchdown point.
6. Land with and then maintain the proper pitch attitude.
7. Keep the longitudinal axis parallel to and over the runway centrerline.
8. Keep the centerline between the main wheels throughout all takeoffs and landings.
9. Respond correctly and positively to any abnormality or emergency.
10. Communicate properly and effectively with ther traffic or ATC.

Flight instructors need to provide adequate flight and ground instruction for “special emphasis” items listed in each PTS for airplane, helicopter, and light sport aircraft. The student needs to be knowledgeable in these special emphasis areas because examiners and authorized instructors place special emphasis upon areas considered critical to flight safety. Special emphasis items include, but are not limited to:

1. Positive aircraft control
2. Procedures for positive exchange of flight controls
3. Stall and spin awareness (if appropriate)
4. Collision avoidance
5. Wake turbulence and low-level wind turbulence and wind shear avoidance
6. Runway incursion avoidance
7. Controlled flight into terrain (CFIT)
8. Aeronautical decision-making (ADM)/risk management
9. Checklist usage
10. Spatial disorientation
11. Temporary flight restrictions (TFR)
12. Special use airspace (SUA)
13. Aviation security
14. Wire strike avoidance

Question 35

(I. FOI. Task E: Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism. Part 1.)

1. Aviation instructor responsibilities:
   a. Helping students learn.
   b. Providing adequate instruction.
   c. Standards of performance.
   d. Minimizing student frustrations.

Answer 35

Aviation Instructor Responsibilities
The job of an aviation instructor is to teach. Previous chapters have discussed how people learn, the teaching process, and teaching methods. As indicated, the learning process can be made easier by helping students learn, providing adequate instruction to meet established standards, measuring student performance against those standards, and emphasizing the positive.

Responsibilities of All Aviation Instructors:

• Helping students learn
• Providing adequate instruction
• Demanding adequate standards of performance Emphasizing the positive
• Ensuring aviation safety

Helping Students Learn
Learning should be an enjoyable experience. By making each lesson a pleasurable experience for the student, the instructor can maintain a high level of student motivation. This does not mean the instructor makes things easy for the student or sacrifices standards of performance to please the student. The student experiences satisfaction from doing a good job or from successfully meeting the challenge of a difficult task.

Providing Adequate Instruction
To tailor his or her teaching technique to the student, the flight instructor analyzes the student’s personality, thinking, and ability. No two students are alike, and a particular method of instruction cannot be equally effective for all students.

Standards of Performance
An aviation instructor is responsible for training an applicant to acceptable standards in all subject matter areas, procedures, and maneuvers included in the tasks within each area of operation in the appropriate Practical Test Standard (PTS). (Envision the bullseye diagram of PTS standards, CFI expectations, and the student’s personal standards.)

Minimizing Student Frustrations

• Motivate students
• Keep students informed Approach students as individuals Give credit when due
• Criticize constructively
• Be consistent
• Admit errors

By following basic rules, instructors can reduce student frustrations and create a learning environment that encourages rather than discourages learning.

Motivate students—more can be gained from wanting to learn than from being forced to learn. Too often, students do not realize how a particular lesson or course can help them reach an important goal. When students can see the benefits and purpose of the lesson or course, their enjoyment and their efforts increase.

Keep students informed—students feel insecure when they do not know what is expected of them or what is going to happen to them.

Instructors keep students informed in various ways, including giving them an overview of the course, keeping them posted on their progress, and giving them adequate notice of examinations, assignments, or other requirements.

Approach students as individuals—each individual within the group has a unique personality to constantly be considered.

Give credit when due—when students do something extremely well, they normally expect their abilities and efforts to be noticed.

Criticize constructively—although it is important to give praise and credit when deserved, it is equally important to identify mistakes and failures. Errors cannot be corrected if they are not identified, and if they are not identified, they will probably be perpetuated through faulty practice.

Be consistent—students want to please their instructor. If the same thing is acceptable one day and unacceptable the next, the student becomes confused.

Admit errors—no one, including students, expects an instructor to be perfect. The instructor can win the respect of students by honestly acknowledging mistakes. If the instructor tries to cover up or bluff, students are quick to sense it. Such behavior tends to destroy student confidence in the instructor. If in doubt about some point, the instructor should admit it.

Question 36

(I. FOI. Task E: Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism. Part 3.)

Professionalism

Answer 36

Being a professional also means behaving in a professional manner.

Instructor Do’s

• Be professional at all times.
• Be sincere.
• Present a professional appearance and personal habits. Maintain a calm demeanor.
• Practice safety and accident prevention at all times. Avoid profanity.
• Define common terms.
• Continue professional development.
• Minimize student frustration.
• Motivate the student.
• Keep the student informed.
• Approach each student as an individual.
• Give credit when due.
• Criticize constructively.
• Be consistent.
• Admit errors.

Instructor Don’ts

• Ridicule the student’s performance. Use profanity.
• Model irresponsible flight behaviors. Say one thing but do another. Forget personal hygiene. Disrespect the student.
• Demand unreasonable progress.
• Forget the student is new to aviation jargon.
• Set the student up for failure.
• Correct errors without an explanation of what went wrong.

Question 37

(I. FOI. Task E: Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism. Part 4.)

Evaluation of student ability.

Answer 37

Evaluation of a student’s ability is an important element of instruction. Used in this context, evaluation refers to judging a student’s ability to perform a maneuver or procedure.

Demonstrated Ability

The evaluation considers the student’s mastery of the elements involved in the maneuver or procedure, rather than merely the overall performance. For example, qualification of student pilots for solo and solo cross-country privileges depends upon demonstrations of performance.

**Keeping the Student Informed**
In evaluating student demonstrations of ability, it is important for the aviation instructor to keep the student informed of progress. This may be done as each procedure or maneuver is completed or summarized during a postflight or class critique. 

Correction of Student Errors
Correction of student errors does not include the practice of taking over from students immediately when a mistake is made. Safety permitting, it is frequently better to let students progress part of the way into the mistake and find a way out.

Question 38

(I. FOI. Task E: Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism. Part 5.)

Aviation instructors and exams.

Answer 38

Knowledge Test
When preparing a student or applicant for the private pilot certification or higher grade rating (i.e., commercial or instrument) a test is required to ensure the student has adequate aeronautical knowledge in those subject areas listed in 14 CFR part 61. The instructor may provide the student with an endorsement to certify he or she has the required knowledge to pass the test. For information concerning additional aircraft certifications that do not require knowledge tests, refer to AC 61-65, Certification: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors.

An instructor should remember he or she is held accountable for a deficient instructional performance. This is important for any instructor who signs recommendations for applicants who were not trained by that instructor. If the applicant fails a test, the aviation instructor must sign the test after he or she has provided additional training in the areas the applicant failed. The applicant is given a retest. Prior to certification, the aviation instructor must make a statement that he or she gave the required training in the preceding 60 days and the instructor reviewed those areas of deficiency on the applicant’s knowledge test.

Practical Test

Provision is made on the airman certificate or rating application form for the written recommendation of the flight instructor who has prepared the applicant for the practical test involved. Signing this recommendation imposes a serious responsibility on the flight instructor. A flight instructor who makes a practical test recommendation for an applicant seeking a certificate or rating should require the applicant to thoroughly demonstrate the knowledge and skill level required for that certificate or rating. This demonstration should in no instance be less than the complete procedure prescribed in the applicable PTS.
When the instructor endorses the applicant for the practical test, his or her signature on the FAA form 8710-1 Airman Certificate and/or Rating Application is valid for 60 days. This is also true with the flight proficiency endorsement that is placed in the applicant’s logbook or training record (AC- 61-65). These two dates should be the same.
Completion of prerequisites for a practical test is another instructor task that must be documented properly. Examples of all common endorsements can be found in the current issue of AC 61-65, appendix 1. This appendix also includes references to 14 CFR part 61 for more details concerning the requirements that must be met to qualify for each respective endorsement. The examples shown contain the essential elements of each endorsement. However, at a minimum, the instructor needs to cite the appropriate 14 CFR part 61 section that has been completed.

Question 39

(I. FOI. Task E: Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism. Part 6.)

Professional Development

Answer 39

Aviation is changing rapidly, and aviation instructors must continue to develop their knowledge and skills in order to teach successfully in this environment.

Successful, professional aviation instructors do not become complacent or satisfied with their own qualifications and abilities, and are constantly alert for ways to improve their qualifications, effectiveness, and the services they provide to students. Considered by their students to be a source of up-to-date information, instructors have the opportunity and responsibility of introducing new procedures and techniques both to their students and to other aviation professionals with whom they come in contact.

Question 40

(I. FOI. Task F: Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism. Part 1.)

Obstacles in learning during flight instruction.

Answer 40

Certain obstacles are common to flight instruction and may apply directly to the student’s attitude, physical condition, and psychological make-up. These include but are not limited to:

• Feeling of unfair treatment
• Impatience to proceed to more interesting operations
• Worry or lack of interest
• Physical discomfort, illness, fatigue, and dehydration
• Apathy due to inadequate instruction
• Anxiety

Question 41

(I. FOI. Task F: Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism. Part 2.)

Demonstration-performance training delivery.

Answer 41

The demonstration-performance training delivery method was discussed briefly in Chapter 4, The Teaching Process, but the following in-depth discussion is geared to the flight instructor. This training method has been in use for a long time and is very effective in teaching kinesthetic skills so flight instructors find it valuable in teaching procedures and maneuvers.

Question 42

(I. FOI. Task F: Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism. Part 2.)

Positive Exchange of Flight Controls

Answer 42

Positive exchange of flight controls is an integral part of flight training. It is especially critical during the demonstration- performance method of flight instruction.

Background

Incident/accident statistics indicate a need to place additional emphasis on the exchange of control of an aircraft by pilots. Numerous accidents have occurred due to a lack of communication or misunderstanding regarding who had actual control of the aircraft, particularly between students and flight instructors. Establishing the following procedure during initial training will ensure the formation of a habit pattern that should stay with students throughout their flying careers.

Procedure

During flight training, there must always be a clear understanding between students and flight instructors about who has control of the aircraft. The preflight briefing should include procedures for the exchange of flight controls. A positive three-step process in the exchange of flight controls between pilots is a proven procedure and one that is strongly recommended. When an instructor is teaching a maneuver to a student, the instructor normally demonstrates the maneuver first, then has the student follow along on the controls during a demonstration and, finally, the student performs the maneuver with the instructor following along on the controls.

During this procedure, a visual check is recommended to see that the other person actually has the flight controls. When returning the controls to the instructor, the student should follow the same procedure the instructor used when giving control to the student. The student should stay on the controls and keep flying the aircraft until the instructor says, “I have the flight controls.” There should never be any doubt about who is flying the aircraft.

Flight instructors should always guard the controls and be prepared to take control of the aircraft. When necessary, the instructor should take the controls and calmly announce, “I have the flight controls.” If an instructor allows a student to remain on the controls, the instructor may not have full and effective control of the aircraft. Anxious students can be incredibly strong and usually exhibit reactions inappropriate to the situation. If a recovery is necessary, there is absolutely nothing to be gained by having the student on the controls and having to fight for control of the aircraft. students should never be allowed to exceed the flight instructor’s limits. Flight instructors should not exceed their own ability to perceive a problem, decide upon a course of action, and physically react within their ability to fly the aircraft.

Question 43

(I. FOI. Task F: Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism. Part 2.)

Sterile cockpit.

Answer 43

Commonly known as the “sterile cockpit rule,” Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) section 121.542 requires flight crewmembers to refrain from nonessential activities during critical phases of flight. As defined in the regulation, critical phases of flight are all ground operations involving taxi, takeoff, and landing, and all other flight operations below 10,000 feet except cruise flight. Nonessential activities include such activities as eating, reading a newspaper, or chatting. A series of aircraft accidents caused by flight crews who were distracted from their flight duties during critical phases of the flight caused the FAA to propose the rule. While the regulation grew out of accidents in the airline industry, it holds true for the entire aviation community. Pilots can improve flight safety significantly by reducing distractions during critical phases of flight. It is important the flight instructor not only teach the concept of a sterile cockpit, but also model such behavior during flight instruction.

At times, instructors should suspend teaching when it would compromise safety.

Question 44

(I. FOI. Task F: Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism. Part 2.)

Use of distractions.

Answer 44

National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) statistics reveal that most stall/spin accidents occurred when the pilot’s attention was diverted from the primary task of flying the aircraft. Sixty percent of stall/spin accidents occurred during takeoff and landing, and twenty percent were preceded by engine failure. Preoccupation inside or outside the flight deck while changing aircraft configuration or trim, maneuvering to avoid other traffic, or clearing hazardous obstacles during takeoff and climb could create a potential stall/spin situation. The intentional practice of stalls and spins seldom resulted in an accident. The real danger was inadvertent stalls induced by distractions during routine flight situations.

Instructor responsibilities include teaching the student to divide his or her attention between the distracting task and maintaining control of the aircraft. The following are examples of distractions that can be used for this training:

• Drop a pencil. Ask the student to pick it up.
• Ask the student to determine a heading to an airport using a chart.
• Ask the student to reset the clock.
• Ask the student to get something from the back seat.
• Ask the student to read the outside air temperature.
• Ask the student to call the Automated Flight Service Station (AFSS) for weather information.
• Ask the student to compute true airspeed with a flight computer.
• Ask the student to identify terrain or objects on the ground.
• Ask the student to identify a field suitable for a forced landing.
• Have the student climb 200 feet and maintain altitude, then descend 200 feet and maintain altitude.
• Have the student reverse course after a series of S- turns.

Question 45

(I. FOI. Task F: Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism. Part 6.)

Integrated flight instruction.

Answer 45

Integrated flight instruction is flight instruction during which students are taught to perform flight maneuvers both by outside visual references and by reference to flight instruments. For this type of instruction to be fully effective, the use of instrument references should begin the first time each new maneuver is introduced. No distinction in the pilot’s operation of the flight controls is permitted, regardless of whether outside references or instrument indications are used for the performance of the maneuver. When this training technique is used, instruction in the control of an aircraft by outside visual references is integrated with instruction in the use of flight instrument indications for the same operations.

Development of Habit Patterns

It important for the student to establish the habit of observing and relying on flight instruments from the beginning of flight training. It is equally important for the student to learn the feel of the airplane while conducting maneuvers, such as being able to feel when the airplane is out of trim or in a nose-high or nose-low attitude. Students who have been required to perform all normal flight maneuvers by reference to instruments, as well as by outside references, develop from the start the habit of continuously monitoring their own and the aircraft’s performance. The early establishment of proper habits of instrument cross-check, instrument interpretation, and aircraft control is highly useful to the student. The habitual attention to instrument indications leads to improved landings because of more precise airspeed control. Effective use of instruments also results in superior cross-country navigation, better coordination, and generally, a better overall pilot competency level.

Operating Efficiency

During the conduct of integrated flight training, the flight instructor must emphasize to the students that the introduction to the use of flight instruments does not prepare them for operations in marginal weather or instrument meteorological conditions (IMC). The possible consequences, both to themselves and to others, of experiments with flight operations in weather conditions below visual flight rules (VFR) minimums before they are instrument rated should be constantly impressed on the students. According to NTSB accident data, inflight encounters with weather (attempting VFR flight into IMC) is one of the most lethal types of GA flying.

See and Avoid

From the start of flight training, the instructor must ensure students develop the habit of looking for other air traffic at all times.

Question 46

(I. FOI. Task F: Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism. Part 7.)

Assessment of piloting ability.

Answer 46

Assessment is an essential component of the teaching process and determines how, what, and how well a student is learning. A well designed assessment provides a student with something constructive upon which he or she can work or build. An assessment should provide direction and guidance to raise the level of performance. Students must understand the purpose of the assessment; otherwise, they will be unlikely to accept the evaluation offered and little improvement will result.

Question 47

(I. FOI. Task F: Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism. Part 8.)

Aeronautical decision making.

Answer 47

ADM is a systematic approach to the mental process used by aircraft pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances. Risk management is a decision-making process designed to systematically identify hazards, assess the degree of risk, and determine the best course of action associated with each flight. Situational awareness is the accurate perception and understanding of all the factors and conditions within the four fundamental risk elements that affect safety before, during, and after the flight. SRM is the art and science of managing all resources (both onboard the aircraft and from outside sources) available to a single pilot (prior and during flight) to ensure the successful outcome of the flight.
These key principles are often collectively called ADM. The importance of teaching students effective ADM skills can not be overemphasized. While progress is continually being made in the advancement of pilot training methods, aircraft equipment and systems, and services for pilots, accidents still occur. Despite all the changes in technology to improve flight safety, one factor remains the same—the human factor. It is estimated that approximately 80 percent of all aviation accidents are human factors related.
By taking a system approach to aviation safety, flight instructors interweave aeronautical knowledge, aircraft control skills, ADM, risk management, situational awareness, and SRM into the training process.

Question 48

**(I. FOI. G: Risk Management. Part 1.) **

Explain the principles of risk management.

Answer 48

Risk is defined as the probability and possible severity of accident or loss from exposure to various hazards, including injury to people and loss of resources. Risk management is a decision-making process designed to identify hazards systematically, assess the degree of risk, and determine the best course of action.

Accept No Unnecessary Risk

Unnecessary risk is that which carries no commensurate return in terms of benefits or opportunities. Everything involves risk. The most logical choices for accomplishing an operation are those that meet all requirements with the minimum acceptable risk. The corollary to this axiom is “accept necessary risk” required to complete the operation or task successfully. Flying is impossible without risk, but unnecessary risk comes without a corresponding return.
Make Risk Decisions at the Appropriate Level
Anyone can make a risk decision. However, the appropriate decision-maker is the person who can develop and implement risk controls. The decision-maker must be authorized to accept levels of risk typical of the planned operation. In a single-pilot situation, the pilot makes the decision to accept certain levels of risk.

Accept Risk When Benefits Outweigh the Costs

All identified benefits should be compared against all identified costs. Even high-risk endeavors may be undertaken when there is clear knowledge that the sum of the benefits exceeds the sum of the costs. For example, in any flying activity, it is necessary to accept some degree of risk. A day with good weather, for example, is a much better time to fly an unfamiliar airplane for the first time than a day with low instrument flight rules (IFR) conditions.

Integrate Risk Management Into Planning at All Levels

Risks are more easily assessed and managed in the planning stages of an operation. The later changes are made in the process of planning and executing an operation, the more expensive and time consuming they become. Because risk is an unavoidable part of every flight, safety requires the use of appropriate and effective risk management not just in the preflight planning stage, but in all stages of the flight.

Question 49

**(I. FOI. G: Risk Management. Part 2.) **

Describe the risk management process.

Answer 49

Risk management is a simple process which identifies operational hazards and takes reasonable measures to reduce risk to personnel, equipment, and the mission.

Step 1: Identify the Hazard

A hazard is defined as any real or potential condition that can cause degradation, injury, illness, death, or damage to or loss of equipment or property. Experience, common sense, and specific analytical tools help identify risks.

Step 2: Assess the Risk

The assessment step is the application of quantitative and qualitative measures to determine the level of risk associated with specific hazards. This process defines the probability and severity of an accident that could result from the hazards based upon the exposure of humans or assets to the hazards.

Step 3: Analyze Risk Control Measures

Investigate specific strategies and tools that reduce, mitigate, or eliminate the risk. All risks have two components:

1. Probability of occurrence
2. Severity of the hazard

Effective control measures reduce or eliminate at least one of these. The analysis must take into account the overall costs and benefits of remedial actions, providing alternative choices if possible.

Step 4: Make Control Decisions

Identify the appropriate decision-maker. That decision-maker must choose the best control or combination of controls, based on the analysis of steps 1 and 2.

Step 5: Implement Risk Controls

A plan for applying the selected controls must be formulated, the time, materials, and personnel needed to put these measures in place must be provided.

Step 6: Supervise and Review

Once controls are in place, the process must be reevaluated periodically to ensure their effectiveness. People at every level must fulfill their respective roles to assure the controls are maintained over time. The risk management process continues throughout the life cycle of the system, mission, or activity.

Implementing the Risk Management Process

To derive maximum benefit from this powerful tool, it must be used properly. The following principles are essential.

• Apply the steps in sequence—each step is a building block for the next, and must be completed before proceeding to the next. If a hazard identification step is interrupted to focus on the control of a particular hazard, more important hazards may be overlooked. Until all hazards are identified, the remainder of the process is not effective.
• Maintain a balance in the process—all steps are important. Allocate the time and resources to perform all.
• Apply the process in a cycle—the “supervise and review” step should include a brand new look at the operation being analyzed to see whether new hazards can be identified.
• Involve people in the process—ensure that risk controls are mission supportive, and the people who must do the work see them as positive actions. The people who are actually exposed to risks usually know best what works and what does not.

Question 50

**(I. FOI. G: Risk Management. Part 3.) **

Describe levels of risk.

Answer 50

The level of risk posed by a given hazard is measured in terms of:

• Severity (extent of possible loss)
• Probability (likelihood that a hazard will cause a loss)

Question 51

(I. FOI. G: Risk Management. Part 4.)

Describe how to assess risk.

Answer 51

Assessment of risk is an important part of good risk management. For example, the hazard of a nick in the propeller poses a risk only if the airplane is flown. If the damaged prop is exposed to the constant vibration of normal engine operation, there is a high risk is that it could fracture and cause catastrophic damage to the engine and/or airframe and the passengers.

Every flight has hazards and some level of risk associated with it. It is critical that pilots and especially students are able to differentiate in advance between a low-risk flight and a high-risk flight, and then establish a review process and develop risk mitigation strategies to address flights throughout that range.

For the single pilot, assessing risk is not as simple as it sounds. For example, the pilot acts as his or her own quality control in making decisions. If a fatigued pilot who has flown 16 hours is asked if he or she is too tired to continue flying, the answer may be no. Most pilots are goal oriented and, when asked to accept a flight, there is a tendency to deny personal limitations while adding weight to issues not germane to the mission. For example, pilots of helicopter emergency services (EMS) have been known to make flight decisions that add significant weight to the patient’s welfare. These pilots add weight to intangible factors (the patient in this case) and fail to appropriately quantify actual hazards such as fatigue or weather when making flight decisions. The single pilot who has no other crew member for consultation must wrestle with the intangible factors that draw one into a hazardous position. Therefore, he or she has a greater vulnerability than a full crew.

Several risk assessment models are available to assist in the process of assessing risk. The models, all taking slightly different approaches, seek a common goal of assessing risk in an objective manner. The most basic tool is the risk matrix. [Figure 9-2] It assesses two items: the likelihood of an event occurring and the consequence of that event.

Question 52

**(I. FOI. G: Risk Management. Part 5.) **

Describe mitigating risks.

Answer 52

Risk assessment is only part of the equation. After determining the level of risk, the pilot needs to mitigate the risk. For example, the pilot flying from point A to point B (50 miles) in MVFR conditions has several ways to reduce risk:

• Wait for the weather to improve to good visual flight rules (VFR) conditions.
• Take a pilot who is rated as an IFR pilot. • Delay the flight.
• Cancel the flight.
• Drive.

Question 53

**(I. FOI. G: Risk Management. Part 6.) **

Explain the IMSAFE checklist.

Answer 53

One of the best ways that single pilots can mitigate risk is to use the IMSAFE checklist to determine physical and mental readiness for flying:

1. Illness—Am I sick? Illness is an obvious pilot risk.
2. Medication—Am I taking any medicines that might affect my judgment or make me drowsy?
3. Stress—Am I under psychological pressure from the job? Do I have money, health, or family problems? Stress causes concentration and performance problems. While the regulations list medical conditions that require grounding, stress is not among them. The pilot should consider the effects of stress on performance.
4. Alcohol—Have I been drinking within 8 hours? Within 24 hours? As little as one ounce of liquor, one bottle of beer, or four ounces of wine can impair flying skills. Alcohol also renders a pilot more susceptible to disorientation and hypoxia.
5. Fatigue—Am I tired and not adequately rested? Fatigue continues to be one of the most insidious hazards to flight safety, as it may not be apparent to a pilot until serious errors are made.
6. Eating—Have I eaten enough of the proper foods to keep adequately nourished during the entire flight?

Question 54

**(I. FOI. G: Risk Management. Part 6.) **

Explain the PAVE checklist.

Answer 54

Another way to mitigate risk is to perceive hazards. By incorporating the PAVE checklist into all stages of flight planning, the pilot divides the risks of flight into four categories: Pilot in command (PIC), Aircraft, enVironment, and External pressures (PAVE) which form part of a pilot’s decision-making process.
With the PAVE checklist, pilots have a simple way to remember each category to examine for risk prior to each flight. Once a pilot identifies the risks of a flight, he or she needs to decide whether the risk or combination of risks can be managed safely and successfully. If not, make the decision to cancel the flight. If the pilot decides to continue with the flight, he or she should develop strategies to mitigate the risks. One way a pilot can control the risks is to set personal minimums for items in each risk category. These are limits unique to that individual pilot’s current level of experience and proficiency.

For example, the aircraft may have a maximum crosswind component of 15 knots listed in the aircraft flight manual (AFM), and the pilot has experience with 10 knots of direct crosswind. It could be unsafe to exceed a 10 knots crosswind component without additional training. Therefore, the 10 kts crosswind experience level is that pilot’s personal limitation until additional training with a certificated flight instructor (CFI) provides the pilot with additional experience for flying in crosswinds that exceed 10 knots.

One of the most important concepts that safe pilots understand is the difference between what is “legal” in terms of the regulations, and what is “smart” or “safe” in terms of pilot experience and proficiency.

P = Pilot in Command (PIC)

The pilot is one of the risk factors in a flight. The pilot must ask, “Am I ready for this trip?” in terms of experience, currency, physical and emotional condition. The IMSAFE checklist combined with proficiency, recency, and currency provides the answers.

A = Aircraft

What limitations will the aircraft impose upon the trip? Ask the following questions:

• Is this the right aircraft for the flight?
• Am I familiar with and current in this aircraft? Aircraft performance figures and the AFM are based on a brand new aircraft flown by a professional test pilot. Keep that in mind while assessing personal and aircraft performance.
• Is this aircraft equipped for the flight? Instruments? Lights? Navigation and communication equipment adequate?
• Can this aircraft use the runways available for the trip with an adequate margin of safety under the conditions to be flown?
• Can this aircraft carry the planned load?
• Can this aircraft operate at the altitudes needed for the trip?
• Does this aircraft have sufficient fuel capacity, with reserves, for trip legs planned?
• Does the fuel quantity delivered match the fuel quantity ordered?

V = EnVironment

Weather is an major environmental consideration. Earlier it was suggested pilots set their own personal minimums, especially when it comes to weather. As pilots evaluate the weather for a particular flight, they should consider the following:

• What are the current ceiling and visibility? In mountainous terrain, consider having higher minimums for ceiling and visibility, particularly if the terrain is unfamiliar.
• Consider the possibility that the weather may be different than forecast. Have alternative plans, and be ready and willing to divert should an unexpected change occur.
• Consider the winds at the airports being used and the strength of the crosswind component.
• If flying in mountainous terrain, consider whether there are strong winds aloft. Strong winds in mountainous terrain can cause severe turbulence and downdrafts and can be very hazardous for aircraft even when there is no other significant weather.
• Are there any thunderstorms present or forecast?
• If there are clouds, is there any icing, current or forecast? What is the temperature-dew point spread and the current temperature at altitude? Can descent be made safely all along the route?
• If icing conditions are encountered, is the pilot experienced at operating the aircraft’s deicing or anti-icing equipment? Is this equipment in good condition and functional? For what icing conditions is the aircraft rated, if any?

Evaluation of terrain is another important component of analyzing the flight environment. To avoid terrain and obstacles, especially at night or in low visibility, determine safe altitudes in advance by using the altitudes shown on VFR and IFR charts during preflight planning. Use maximum elevation figures (MEFs) and other easily obtainable data to minimize chances of an inflight collision with terrain or obstacles.

Airport considerations include:

• What lights are available at the destination and alternate airports? VASI/PAPI or ILS glideslope guidance? Is the terminal airport equipped with them? Are they working? Will the pilot need to use the radio to activate the airport lights?
• Check the Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) for closed runways or airports. Look for runway or beacon lights out, nearby towers, etc.
• Choose the flight route wisely. An engine failure gives the nearby airports (and terrain) supreme importance.
• Are there shorter or obstructed fields at the destination and/or alternate airports?

Airspace considerations include:

• If the trip is over remote areas, are appropriate clothing, water, and survival gear onboard in the event of a forced landing?
• If the trip includes flying over water or unpopulated areas with the chance of losing visual reference to the horizon, the pilot must be current, equipped, and qualified to fly IFR.
• Check the airspace and any temporary flight restriction (TFRs) along the route of flight.

Night flying requires special consideration.

• If the trip includes flying at night over water or unpopulated areas with the chance of losing visual reference to the horizon, the pilot must be prepared to fly IFR.
• Will the flight conditions allow a safe emergency landing at night?
• Preflight all aircraft lights, interior and exterior, for a night flight. Carry at least two flashlights—one for exterior preflight and a smaller one that can be dimmed and kept nearby.

E = External Pressures

External pressures are influences external to the flight that create a sense of pressure to complete a flight—often at the expense of safety. Factors that can be external pressures include the following:

• Someone waiting at the airport for the flight’s arrival.
• A passenger the pilot does not want to disappoint.
• The desire to demonstrate pilot qualifications.
• The desire to impress someone. (Probably the two most dangerous words in aviation are “Watch this!”)
• The desire to satisfy a specific personal goal (“get- home-itis,” “get-there-itis,” and “let’s-go-itis”).
• The pilot’s general goal-completion orientation.
• Emotional pressure associated with acknowledging that skill and experience levels may be lower than a pilot would like them to be. Pride can be a powerful external factor!

Management of external pressure is the single most important key to risk management because it is the one risk factor category that can cause a pilot to ignore all the other risk factors. External pressures put time-related pressure on the pilot and figure into a majority of accidents.
The use of personal standard operating procedures (SOPs) is one way to manage external pressures. The goal is to supply a release for the external pressures of a flight. These procedures include but are not limited to:

• Allow time on a trip for an extra fuel stop or to make an unexpected landing because of weather.
• Have alternate plans for a late arrival or make backup airline reservations for must-be-there trips.
• For really important trips, plan to leave early enough so that there would still be time to drive to the destination.
• Advise those who are waiting at the destination that the arrival may be delayed. Know how to notify them when delays are encountered.
• Manage passengers’ expectations. Make sure passengers know that they might not arrive on a firm schedule, and if they must arrive by a certain time, they should make alternative plans.
• Eliminate pressure to return home, even on a casual day flight, by carrying a small overnight kit containing prescriptions, contact lens solutions, toiletries, or other necessities on every flight.

The key to managing external pressure is to be ready for and accept delays. Remember that people get delayed when traveling on airlines, driving a car, or taking a bus. The pilot’s goal is to manage risk, not create hazards.

During each flight, decisions must be made regarding events involving interactions between the four risk elements—PIC, aircraft, environment, and external pressures. The decision- making process involves an evaluation of each of these risk elements to achieve an accurate perception of the flight situation.

Question 55

**(I. FOI. G: Risk Management. Part 7.) **

Explain the 5P checklist.

Answer 55

SRM is about gathering information, analyzing it, and making decisions. Learning how to identify problems, analyze the information, and make informed and timely decisions is not as straightforward as the training involved in learning specific maneuvers. Learning how to judge a situation and “how to think” in the endless variety of situations encountered while flying out in the “real world” is more difficult. There is no one right answer in ADM; rather, each pilot is expected to analyze each situation in light of experience level, personal minimums, and current physical and mental readiness level, and make his or her own decision.

SRM sounds good on paper, but it requires a way for pilots to understand and use it in their daily flights. One practical application is called the “Five Ps” (5 Ps). The 5 Ps consist of “the Plan, the Plane, the Pilot, the Passengers, and the Programming.” Each of these areas consists of a set of challenges and opportunities that face a single pilot. And each can substantially increase or decrease the risk of successfully completing the flight based on the pilot’s ability to make informed and timely decisions. The 5 Ps are used to evaluate the pilot’s current situation at key decision points during the flight, or when an emergency arises. These decision points include preflight, pretakeoff, hourly or at the midpoint of the flight, predescent, and just prior to the final approach fix or for visual flight rules (VFR) operations, just prior to entering the traffic pattern.

The 5 Ps are based on the idea that the pilot has essentially five variables that impact his or her environment and that can cause the pilot to make a single critical decision, or several less critical decisions, that when added together can create a critical outcome. This concept stems from the belief that current decision-making models tend to be reactionary in nature. A change must occur and be detected to drive a risk management decision by the pilot. For instance, many pilots use risk management sheets that are filled out by the pilot prior to takeoff. These form a catalog of risks that may be encountered that day and turn them into numerical values. If the total exceeds a certain level, the flight is altered or cancelled. Informal research shows that while these are useful documents for teaching risk factors, they are almost never used outside of formal training programs. The 5P concept is an attempt to take the information contained in those sheets and in the other available models and use it.

The 5P concept relies on the pilot to adopt a scheduled review of the critical variables at points in the flight where decisions are most likely to be effective. For instance, the easiest point to cancel a flight due to bad weather is before the pilot and passengers walk out the door to load the aircraft. So, the first decision point is preflight in the flight planning room, where all the information is readily available to make a sound decision, and where communication and Fixed Base Operator (FBO) services are readily available to make alternate travel plans.

The second easiest point in the flight to make a critical safety decision is just prior to takeoff. Few pilots have ever had to make an emergency takeoff. While the point of the 5P check is to help the pilot fly, the correct application of the 5P before takeoff is to assist in making a reasoned go/no-go decision based on all the information available. These two points in the process of flying are critical go/no-go points on each and every flight.

The third place to review the 5 Ps is at the midpoint of the flight. Often, pilots may wait until the Automated Terminal information Service (ATIS) is in range to check weather, yet at this point in the flight many good options have already passed behind the aircraft and pilot. Additionally, fatigue and low-altitude hypoxia serve to rob the pilot of much of his or her energy by the end of a long and tiring flight day. This leads to a transition from a decision-making mode to an acceptance mode on the part of the pilot. If the flight is longer than 2 hours, the 5P check should be conducted hourly.

The last two decision points are just prior to decent into the terminal area and just prior to the final approach fix, or if VFR just prior to entering the traffic pattern, as preparations for landing commence. Most pilots execute approaches with the expectation that they will land out of the approach every time. A healthier approach requires the pilot to assume that changing conditions (the 5 Ps again) will cause the pilot to divert or execute the missed approach on every approach.

This keeps the pilot alert to all conditions that may increase risk and threaten the safe conduct of the flight. Diverting from cruise altitude saves fuel, allows unhurried use of the autopilot, and is less reactive in nature. Diverting from the final approach fix, while more difficult, still allows the pilot to plan and coordinate better, rather than executing a futile missed approach.

The Plan

The plan can also be called the mission or the task. It contains the basic elements of cross-country planning, weather, route, fuel, publications currency, etc. The plan should be reviewed and updated several times during the course of the flight. A delayed takeoff due to maintenance, fast moving weather, and a short notice temporary flight restriction (TFR) may all radically alter the plan. The plan is not only about the flight plan, but also all the events that surround the flight and allow the pilot to accomplish the mission. The plan is always being updated and modified and is especially responsive to changes in the other four remaining Ps. If for no other reason, the 5P check reminds the pilot that the day’s flight plan is real life and subject to change at any time.

The Plane

Both the plan and the plane are fairly familiar to most pilots. The plane consists of the usual array of mechanical and cosmetic issues that every aircraft pilot, owner, or operator can identify.

The Pilot

Flying, especially when used for business transportation, can expose the pilot to high altitude flying, long distance and endurance, and more challenging weather. An advanced avionics aircraft, simply due to its advanced capabilities can expose a pilot to even more of these stresses. The traditional “IMSAFE” checklist is a good start.

The Passengers

One of the key differences between CRM and SRM is the way passengers interact with the pilot. The pilot of a high capability single-engine aircraft has entered into a very personal relationship with the passengers. In fact, the pilot and passengers sit within an arm’s reach all of the time.

The Programming

The advanced avionics aircraft adds an entirely new dimension to the way GA aircraft are flown. The electronic instrument displays, GPS, and autopilot reduce pilot workload and increase pilot situational awareness. While programming and operation of these devices are fairly simple and straightforward, unlike the analog instruments they replace, they tend to capture the pilot’s attention and hold it for long periods of time. To avoid this phenomenon, the pilot should plan in advance when and where the programming for approaches, route changes, and airport information gathering should be accomplished as well as times it should not. Pilot familiarity with the equipment, the route, the local air traffic control environment, and personal capabilities vis- à-vis the automation should drive when, where, and how the automation is programmed and used.