First Crusade and background to it 1071-1099 Flashcards
Aims and objectives of the papacy:
Establishing its independence and control over investiture
Improve relations with Byzantium
Establish papal dominance over secular authority
how was the papacy successful in it’s objective of improving relations with Byzantium
1074 – Gregory VII promised to send aid to Emperor Michael VII against the Seljuk Turks.
1095 – First crusade was the response to Alexius’ letter in an attempt to improve relations.
The First Crusade recaptured major parts of Anatolia for the Byzantines e.g. Nicaea (1097) and also decisively defeated the Sultan of Rum (Dorylaeum 1097)
how was the papacy successful in it’s objective of independence and investiture
Maintenance of College of cardinals formed in 1059 to elect the pope and maintain independence from the Emperor –both Victor III and Urban II were elected.
Papal authority over investiture was reasserted in 1075 (after being claimed in Dictatus Papae), and lay investiture (appointment of bishops by non-churchmen) fully forbidden in 1078 at Roman synod – Investiture contest between pope and Henry IV.
Gregory VII was succeeded by equally independent popes – Victor III (1086-1087) and Urban II (1088-1099).
Emperor Henry IV was defeated by pope and allies and trapped in Verona between 1092 and 1097 –allowing greater church reform at Piacenza (March 1095) and Clermont (November 1095) without imperial interference.
Clement III (the anti-pope between 1080 and 1100) did not prevail over the ‘reform’ papacy in the long term.
how was the papacy successful in it’s objective of Papal dominance over secular authority:
Gregory used the doctrines within Dictatus Papae to claim dominance.
Gregory VII established the milites Christi (armies established to fight on behalf of the pope) against his opponents in the name of God.
Matilda of Tuscany helped defend the papacy along with German nobles, leading to the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV begging Gregory VII for forgiveness (Canossa, 1077).
Successful holy War against Muslims – Sicily: capture of the island from 1059 onwards, Spain: Capture of Toledo 1085 – this bolstered the claims of the papacy.
Spanish kingdom of Aragon became a papal vassal.
The First Crusade was a huge success in terms of the large military force that was assembled due to the call of the papacy. It was also successful in recapturing Jerusalem from Muslims (1099) and establishing new states in the East – demonstrating that the papacy could do the job of western rulers.
how was the papacy not successful in it’s objective of independence and investiture
Atto was put forward as papal candidate for archbishop of Milan in 1075 instead of Tedald (Henry IV’s choice) but Tedald triumphed.
Gregory VII himself became pope by ‘acclamation’ and not the college of cardinals.
Clement III had imperial support and a strong following between 1080 and 1100.
Many rulers continued to perform investiture e.g. William I of England.
how was the papacy not successful in it’s objective of improving relations with Byzantium
Gregory VII could not help Michael VII despite the promise and he also excommunicated Nicephorus III (1078) and Alexius I (1081) after their coups.
The papal alliance with the Normans damaged relations – Guiscard was recognised as a candidate for Byzantine emperor by the papacy, church relations between were never fully restored
The crusaders refused to return the city of Antioch to the Byzantines (1098) and the Byzantines gave them no further aid.
Greek patriarchs in the Holy Land were also replaced with Latin ones at the end of the First Crusade in 1099.
how was the papacy not successful in it’s objective of papal dominance over secular authority
Henry IV’s submission at Canossa was cosmetic – he soon regained power and dominance.
Gregory VII died in exile in Salerno in 1085 after having been driven out of Rome by his enemies.
Many rulers did not accept papal overlordship e.g. King William I (Gregory VII) and Wiiliam II (Urban II) of England. Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury’s support for Urban II’s agenda contributed to his exile in 1097.
why did the peoples crusade fail due to the fragmented nature of the people’s crusade
There were three large groups and they lacked co-ordination:
Peter the hermit, Walter Sans Avoir, Count Emicho.
The parts of the People’s Crusade moved through Europe separately and there was a lack of clear leadership and co-ordination
The French contingent was unwilling to wait for Peter or the Germans and pressed on ahead of the others.
Parts of the crusade under Count Emicho became distracted by anti-Semitic attacks against the Jewish population of Germany. This was not what the crusade was supposed to be about and was not supported by the other leaders.
Problems in Anatolia:
The different groups of the People’s Crusade argued in Anatolia (the Germans and Italians vs. French) and refused to work together.
Rival leaders (Rainald and Geoffrey Burel) took control from Peter the Hermit in Anatolia.
Why did the People’s Crusade fail due to lack of military skill and poor tactics
Repeated demonstrations of military failure:
The defeat of the People’s Crusade by Byzantine forces at Nish led to a loss of a quarter of its forces
Elements of the crusade captured Xerigordon from the Turks but had not made preparations to defend it and were unable to do so.
Most of the remnant of the People’s Crusade was massacred by the Turks at Civetot
The survivors from Civetot were only rescued due to Byzantine intervention.
Why did the People’s Crusade fail due to Lack of military skill and poor tactics
Repeated demonstrations of military failure:
The defeat of the People’s Crusade by Byzantine forces at Nish led to a loss of a quarter of its forces
Elements of the crusade captured Xerigordon from the Turks but had not made preparations to defend it and were unable to do so.
Most of the remnant of the People’s Crusade was massacred by the Turks at Civetot
The survivors from Civetot were only rescued due to Byzantine intervention.
Why was the First Crusade successful due to The unity and military skill of the Crusaders
Crusaders were able to work together despite differences
The eight-month siege of Antioch would have been impossible without co-operation – shared war chest
Crusaders resolved differences (over ruling Jerusalem) to fight the Fatimids at Ascalon (August 1099) after capturing Jerusalem.
Military skill of the unified Crusader force
Skill of Bohemond at Dorylaeum (July 1097) – kept vanguard together whist awaiting reinforcements (role of Adhemar)
Unified efforts against divided Muslim foes at Antioch during the Crusader siege
Bohemond’s military skill – used unwieldy numbers of Kerbogha’s forces against him at Antioch (28 June 1098).
Construction and use of siege engines to take Jerusalem:
Role of Godfrey and Baldwin (North) while Raymond attacked (South)
Robert of Normandy’s role at the Battle of Ascalon (August 1099)
Limitations (CA)
Tancred and Baldwin’s rivalry over Cilicia
The argument over possession of Antioch – August 1098-Jan 1099 (Raymond vs. Bohemond) following the death of Adhemar
The failure of the crusaders to capture Arqah (1099)
Disunity and rivalry over the rulership of Jerusalem
Why was the First Crusade successful due The religious zeal of the crusaders
Religious conviction allowed the Crusaders to maintain morale in battle even in desperate situations
The vanguard at Dorylaeum sang hymns whilst waiting for reinforcements
The discovery of the ‘Holy Lance’ (June 1098) restored the morale of the army at Antioch despite starvation and overwhelming Muslim numerical advantage.
Religious zeal drove the crusaders on to Jerusalem, it kept them fixed on their goal
Role of Bishop Adhemar as conciliator until his death at Antioch (August 1098).
Ordinary crusaders threatened to elect new leader when their leaders were bickering over possession of Antioch.
Crusaders pulled down the walls at Ma’arrat to prevent further delays in the journey to Jerusalem.
Limitations (CA)
The failure of the People’s Crusade even though its participants were highly religiously motivated.
The growing suspicion among the crusaders that the ‘Holy Lance’ was a fraud – ‘discovered by one of Raymond of Toulouse’s followers (Peter Bartholomew) to enhance his authority.
Bohemond and many of his Norman followers did not complete their pilgrimage.
Why was the First Crusade successful due to The aid of Byzantium
Byzantines provided crusaders with vital intelligence and information
Alexius informed crusaders of Sunni-Shia split and suggested alliance with the Fatimids.
Timing of crusade was partly consequence of Byzantine strategy.
Alexius and Taticius informed crusaders of Turkish battle tactics.
Byzantines provided the Crusaders with practical aid and logistical support
Taticius brought with him a force of 2000 skirmish fighters
Byzantine fleet blockaded Nicaea.
Taticius acted as guide to lead them across Anatolia. He acted as a liaison with local Armenian Christians that the crusaders used to help them.
Byzantine fleets supplied the Crusaders at Antioch (from Cyprus).
Byzantines provided supplies and designs for siege weaponry at Antioch.
Limitations (CA)
The crusaders ignored the advice of the Byzantines to form an alliance or understanding with the Fatimids.
Taticius left the siege of Antioch (February 1098). Alexius I largely refused further aid to the crusade after they failed to return Antioch to him (Autumn 1098).
why was the first crusade successful due to the disunity of the muslims
Divisions between Muslims before the First Crusade
Rivalry between Sunni and Shia Muslims was over 400 years old at this point
Crusade arrived in middle of conflict between Seljuks (Sunnis) and Fatimids (Shia) over Palestine – the Seljuks captured Jerusalem in 1071 and the Fatimids were seeking to recapture it
Death of Suleiman in 1086 led to splintering of Seljuk rule in Anatolia (rise of Danishmends, Caka of Smyrna etc.)
Deaths of prominent Muslim leaders in early 1090s:
Seljuk Turks: Malik Shah and Nizam al-Mulk (1092), Tutush (1095). Also, Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadi (1094).
Fatimids: Al-Mustansir and Badr al-Jumali (1094).
Disintegration of Seljuk Empire after Malik Shah’s death – successor Barkiyaruq struggling (killed Tutush I)
Divisions during the First Crusade
Kilij Arslan, Turking Sultan of Rum in Anatolia, was attacking Danishmends at time of Nicaea attack (1097)
Ridwan of Aleppo and Duqaq of Damascus were unwilling to co-ordinate to defeat the crusaders at Antioch
Disunity and Division within Kerbogha’s large force (diversion to Edessa, failure at Antioch)
The Muslim convert, Firuz, betrayed the garrison at Antioch allowing the Crusaders to enter the city
Many Muslim coastal leaders (Antioch-Jerusalem) were willing to pay tribute to crusaders – effectively helping the crusade
Fatimids had offered to ally with Crusaders (April 1098). Turks unwilling to aid the Fatimids when they were subsequently attacked (Fatimids having recaptured Jerusalem from them in 1098)
Limitations (CA)
Kilij Arslan and Danishmends allied together against the crusaders at Dorylaeum but were still defeated.
Jotischky claims that both Ridwan’s army at Antioch (1098) and the Fatimid army at Ascalon (1099) should have been able to defeat the crusaders on their own (so unity should not have been necessary).
