Fire Safety S100 Flashcards
What is the 10AM Concept
Every effort is made to control the wildfire by 10am of the morning following discovery. By controlling fires before 10am (when high temp and low humidity start to increase fire rates of spread) firefighters can suppress fires more easily with a greater chance of success. The success rate is over 90% with this method.
When reporting a fire, what key elements are important to note?
- Exact location and size of the fire
- Colour, density, and volume of smoke
- Wind speed and direction
- Type of trees and ground vegetation and how they are spaced
- The terrain in the area (is fire on a slope/open area?)
- Values at Risk (Communities, Buildings, Power Lines)
- Access to the area (road, boat, helicopter?)
- Firefighting resources currently in use suppressing the fire
What is the duff layer of a forest?
The duff layer rests on top of the soil layer. Duff evolves from each year’s dead and decomposed plants and animals. Mineral soil evolves from decomposition of rocks.
What are the 3 sides of the fire triangle and where do they originate?
Fuel: From the forest
Oxygen: In the air
Heat: Introduced by people or naturally (lightning strike)
What are forest fuels and the 3 types of them?
Forest fuels are any substance that will ignite and combust.
1. Aerial fuel: combustible material higher than 1m above ground level
2. Surface fuel: includes all combustibles less than 1m above ground level and 1 year’s litter accumulation
3. Ground fuel: includes all combustible substances below the surface litter of the duff
Why is the fire triangle important?
These 3 elements are essential for a fire to start and spread, thus by understanding it we can extinguish a fire by removing one side of the triangle.
What are the 3 factors that influence fire behaviour?
- Fuel
- Weather
- Topography
What 4 factors influence how fuel contributes to fire behaviour?
- Moisture
- Size
- Spacing (continuity)
- Fuel loading
What 4 factors influence how weather contributes to fire behaviour?
- Wind
- Precipitation
- Relative humidity
- Temperature
How does fuel moisture impact how a fuel will contribute to fire behaviour?
Fuel moisture content is the single most important fuel-related factor affecting fire
behaviour. Fire will ignite easier and spread faster in fuels with lower fuel moisture.
What factors affect the fuel moisture in wildland fuels?
- Weather related factors affecting the amount of moisture in the fuel. For example, the amount and type of precipitation (rain, snow)
- Percentage of live or dead (cured) fuel. For example green grass will not burn as well as brown grass.
What are the 2 types of fuel spacing?
Horizontal Fuel Spacing- is usually described as “continuous” or “patchy”.
Vertical Fuel Spacing- refers to the distance between surface fuels and aerial fuels. Fuels present between these two fuels are called ladder fuels.
What 4 factors influence how topography contributes to fire behaviour?
- Slope
- Aspect
- Terrain
- Elevation
What is fuel spacing and how does it impact how a fuel will contribute to fire behaviour?
Fuel spacing refers to the arrangement of fuel on the landscape and can be considered as the fuel distribution in the horizontal and vertical directions. Fuel closer together increases the ability of fire to spread, while fuel spaced further apart decreases the ability of fire to spread
How does fuel size impact how a fuel will contribute to fire behaviour?
Heavy, slow-burning fuels include logs, stumps, large branch wood, trees and deep duff. Taking longer to
ignite (due to moisture content) fires spread slowly but burn longer with
greater intensity. The moisture content change is slower due to a low surface area to volume ratio.
Light, fast-burning fuels include grass, dead leaves, tree needles, brush and small trees. They ignite quickly, result in fast spreading fires
and act as kindling to light heavier fuels. The moisture content change is faster due to a high surface area
to volume ratio.
What is fuel loading and how does it impact how a fuel will contribute to fire behaviour?
Fuel loading refers to the weight or mass of fuels in a given area, usually measured in tonnes per hectare. Fuel loads may vary across the landscape.
Higher density fuel loads will burn at higher intensities if fuel moisture conditions make all the fuel available for combustion.
How does wind impact how the weather contributes to fire behaviour?
Wind is the single most important weather factor affecting fire behaviour and
influences fire behaviour by:
* Increasing or decreasing fuel moisture
* Bending the flames ahead, heating, drying and igniting new fuels
* Carrying sparks and embers into new fuel sources (spotting)
* Feeding more oxygen to a fire
* Driving the direction of a fire
How does precipitation impact how the weather contributes to fire behaviour?
Precipitation influences fire behaviour by affecting fuel moisture. The effect of precipitation on fuel moisture is mostly dependant on fuel size:
* Less precipitation is required to raise the fuel moisture content in fine fuels
than in heavy fuels
* Fine fuels will dry out faster heavy fuels
* Precipitation may not wet ground fuels if they are located under a dense
canopy
* Duration of precipitation, not quantity, is the most important factor
determining the effect of precipitation on fuel moisture.
What is relative humidity and how does it impact how the weather contributes to fire behaviour?
Relative Humidity influences fire behaviour by affecting fuel moisture.
Relative Humidity is the percentage of water vapour present in the air. When the
air is dry (low Relative Humidity), fuels are likely to dry out; when the air is damp (high Relative Humidity), fuels are likely to absorb moisture (fuel moisture increases). Typically, the relative humidity will increase overnight and decrease during the day.
How does temperature impact how the weather contributes to fire behaviour?
Temperature fluctuations affect relative humidity, thereby affecting fuel moisture content. To a lesser degree, temperatures also influence the amount of preheating required to bring fuel to it’s ignition temperature.
Describe the 30/30 Cross
The 30/30 Cross describes the condition where the RH drops below 30% and temperature rises about 30ºC. If this occurs on the fireline, this is a useful rule of
thumb to potentially expect extreme fire behaviour –precautions must be taken accordingly.
What is the CFFDRS?
The Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System (CFFDRS) is a standard national system of rating fire danger in Canada. Fire potential and fire spreadrates are used to determine day-to-day fire preparedness and suppression
requirements for fire centre operations.
What are the 2 sub-systems of the CFFDRS?
- The Fire Weather Index (FWI) system
- The Fire Behaviour Prediction (FBP) system.
Describe the FWI System and its 4 main inputs
The Fire Weather Index (FWI) system uses four weather readings (taken each
day at 1300 hours PDT). These inputs are:
1. Temperature (wet and dry bulb)
2. Relative Humidity
3. Wind speed and direction
4. Rainfall (cumulative – past 24 hours)
The weather readings are entered into standard tables which provide fire fighters
with three Fuel Moisture Codes and three Fire Behaviour Indexes.
What are Fuel Moisture Codes?
Fuel Moisture Codes are numerical ratings that express daily changes in
moisture content of three classes or layers of forest fuel (each class has a
different drying rate). Fuel Moisture Code values increase with lower fuel
moistures.
What are the 3 types of FMCs?
- Fine Fuel Moisture Code (FFMC)
- Duff Moisture Code (DMC)
- Drought Code (DC)
What does the Fine Fuel Moisture Code represent?
The FFMC represents the moisture content
in litter (needles, twigs) and other cured fuels on the surface. This fuel group is
extremely sensitive to all daily weather changes. The FFMC expresses ease of
ignition and fuel flammability.
What does the Duff Moisture Code represent?
The DMC represents the moisture content of duff layers 5 – 10 cm (2 – 4 inches) deep. This fuel group is affected by rainfall,
temperature and humidity. The DMC expresses fuel consumption in mediumdepth duff layers and medium-sized woody material.
What does the Drought Code represent?
The DC represents the moisture content of deep duff layers
10 – 20 cm (5 – 10 inches) deep. This fuel group is affected by rainfall and temperature. The DC expresses seasonal drought effects on forest fuels and the
amount of smouldering that will occur in deep duff layers and large logs.
Describe the 3 main Fire Behaviour Indexes (FBIs)
- Initial Spread Index (ISI): Represents the relative fire spread expected immediately
after ignition. - Build Up Index (BUI): Represents the total amount of fuel available for combustion – useful in determining mop-up requirements – used in calculating fire rate of spread.
- Fire Weather Index (FWI): Represents the potential fire intensity. Fire danger levels
(classified as very low, low, moderate, high or extreme) summarize wildland fire conditions for a specific area.
What is the Fire Behaviour Prediction (FBP) System and what does it evaluate?
The FBP system predicts fire rate of spread in a given fuel type with a known ISI.
The FBP system evaluates:
* FWI indices on site or from the nearest weather station
* Fuel type (17 different fuel types)
* Topography (slope and aspect)
* Time of day / time of year
What are the 3 primary outputs of the FBP system?
- Rate of Spread (meters per minute)
- Fire Type (surface, intermittent crown, crown)
- Fire Intensity (kilowatts per meter)
What are the 4 main fire types?
- Ground Fire
- Surface Fire
- Crown Fire (Intermittent)
- Crown Fire
What is the terrain and how does it impact how the topography contributes to fire behaviour?
Terrain is the variation in land features, which primarily affects fire behaviour by altering wind direction and speed at a local level. It is useful to think of the wind patterns over terrain as water flowing in a river.
Terrain affects wind patterns in the following ways:
* Turbulence or “eddies” can be generated on the leeward side when wind blows across ridges
* Terrain restrictions, such as narrow portions of valleys, or knolls, can increase wind speed as the wind passes through, or around these
restrictions.
* Steep-sided gullies or canyons running uphill can create a “chimney effect” dramatically increasing uphill spread rates and intensity. In many
cases these terrain features will also have heavy fuel loadings, increasing fire behaviour.
How does slope impact how the topography contributes to fire behaviour?
Slope is the single most important topographical factor affecting fire behaviour.
Slope affects fire behaviour in the following ways:
* Flames are closer to fuels on the uphill side, heating and igniting these new fuels
* Convective heat (rising heat) from the fire travels up the slope, heating and drying new fuels
* The convective air may carry firebrands, which can
ignite spot fires above the main fire
* Burning embers and large burning material may roll downhill igniting new, unburned materials below the fire
* Firefighting efforts are hampered and slowed on slopes
* Cooling at night and weather changes can cause winds to blow down slope.
What is the aspect and how does it impact how the topography contributes to fire behaviour?
Aspect refers to the direction the slope faces. For example, a southwest aspect is
a slope that faces southwest.
The following aspect factors affect fire behaviour directly:
* Southern slopes receive the most direct heat from the sun and therefore
have higher temperatures
* Fuels on south facing slopes typically have the lowest fuel moisture
What is the Fire Intensity Ranking System?
Fire ranking is a very convenient way of quickly assessing the fire.
It is important to understand the Fire Intensity Ranking System which enables fire fighters to communicate a summarized assessment of fire behaviour. Numbers
from 1 (low) to 6 (extreme) are based on the FWI values.
How does the elevation impact how the topography contributes to fire behaviour?
Typically, air temperatures follow an elevation gradient with temperatures being warmer at lower elevations and cooler at higher elevations. Quite often, atmospheric conditions will cause a band of warm air to be trapped at mid-elevation between cool air at lower elevations and cool air above. In mountainous
terrain this is a temperature inversion known as a thermal belt. Within the
thermal belt, temperature will be higher and relative humidity will be lower than the elevations above and below, possibly creating extreme fire conditions when
unexpected.
Describe a Rank 1 fire
No open flame, white smoke, smouldering ground fire
Describe a Rank 2 fire
- Visible open flame, surface fire only
- Unorganized flame front, little or no spread
Describe a Rank 3 fire
- Organized surface flame front
- Moderate rate of spread
- Vigorous surface fire
Describe a Rank 4 fire
Organized surface flame front, disorganized crown involvement
* Moderate to fast rate of spread on the ground
* Short range spotting
* Grey to black smoke
Describe a Rank 5 fire
- Organized crown fire front
- Moderate to long range spotting
- Independent spot fire growth
- Copper to black smoke
Describe a Rank 6 fire
- Organized crown fire front
- Moderate to long range spotting
- Independent spot fire growth
- Presence of fire balls and fire whirl
Define Spotting
A fire producing firebrands carried by the surface wind, a fire whirl and/or convection column that fall beyond the main fire perimeter and result in spot fires.
Define Candling
A single tree or a small clump of trees is said to candle when its foliage ignites and flares up, usually from bottom to top.
Why is it important to know the anatomy of a fire?
You will need this to describe your position on the fire or the position of an
observation you are making from afar.
What are the 8 main parts of a fire?
- Head
- Back
- Flank
- Finger
- Bay
- Island
- Spot Fire
- Hot Spot
Define the Head/Front of a fire
The head or front of the fire is the portion of the fire that has the greatest rate of spread. The head is the direction in which the fire is growing. The head is usually on the downwind or upslope part of the fire.
Define the back/rear of a fire
The back/rear of the fire is opposite the head and usually has the slowest rate of spread. It’s also known as the heel/base.
Define the flank of a fire
The flanks are any areas between the head and the back. The flanks are often referred to in relation to a geographic feature such as the ‘north flank’.
Define the bay of a fire
A bay is a marked indentation in the fire perimeter. A bay is usually located between two fingers.
Define the finger of a fire
A finger is an elongated burn area projecting from the main body of the fire. Fingers often occur on wind driven fires.
Define the island of a fire
An island is an area of an unburned fuel located within the fire perimeter.
Define a hot spot
A hot spot is any part of the fire that is particularly active
Define a spot fire
Spot/jump fire is a fire ignited by firebrands outside the main perimeter or the fire. Spots can occur very close to the fireline or under windy conditions a great distance from the fireline.
What are the 5 major functions within the Incident Command System?
- Incident Commander
2a) Operations Section
2b) Planning Section
2c) Logistics Section
2d) Finance/ Administrations Section
What is the role of the Incident Commander?
IC has overall responsibility at the fire. There is an Incident Commander in charge of every fire. On small (low complexity) fires, the
Incident Commander may manage all of the 5 main functions on their own. On
larger (higher complexity) fires, the Incident Commander may require separate
Section Chiefs for each of the additional 4 main functions, as well as Branch Directors, Group or Division Supervisors and Crew Leaders; depending on the
complexity of the fire.
What is the role of the Operations Section Chief?
Responsible for all operations, organizes and directs personnel, equipment and aircraft. This is the section firefighters work under when suppressing fires.
What is the role of the Planning Section Chief?
Responsible for developing action plans and maintaining records.
What is the role of the Logistics Section Chief?
Provides support for incident (food, vehicles, equipment, etc.).
What is the role of the Finance/ Administration Chief?
Monitors costs, accounting and time recording.
What is the role of the Crew Leader?
The Crew Leader is considered a single resource leader in ICS and directs up to 7 fire fighters to perform certain tasks in a specific area of the fire. The crew
leader typically reports to the Division Supervisor, or Operations Section Chief on larger fires. On smaller fires, the Crew Leader either takes charge as the Incident Commander, or reports directly to the Incident Commander.
What is the Chain of Command and why is it important?
Firefighter safety and effectiveness is the responsibility of their immediate supervisor. One of the keys to ensuring that firefighters are working safely and
effectively at all times is the chain-of-command. The chain of command rule
states that fire fighters have ‘one boss and one boss only’. Firefighters will report to and take direction from their immediate supervisor only, regardless of what supervisory staff may be in the vicinity. This rule is respected at all times for reasons of safety and efficiency. Firefighters must ensure that they do not change locations without the Crew Leaders knowledge.
What is the optimal Span of Control?
For safety and efficiency reasons, supervisors should only supervise up to a
maximum of 7 people with an optimum span of control of 1 supervisor to 5
people.
What are the 6 major incident facilities in the ICS system?
- Incident Command Post (Name)
- Staging Areas (Name)
- Base (Name)
- Camp (Name)
- Helibase (Name)
- Helispot (Number or Name
Define a Incident Command Post
The location from which the Incident
Commander oversees all incident operations. There is only one ICP for each incident.
Define a staging area
Locations where resources (including firefighters) are kept while awaiting assignment. Most fires will have at least one staging area; some may have several staging areas.
Define a base
he location at the incident where the primary service and support activities are performed (equipment repairs, equipment warehouse etc.). There is only one base for each incident.
Define a camp
Camps are temporary locations within the general incident area which are equipped to provide sleeping, food, water and sanitary services to incident personnel. There may be more than one camp on large fires.
Define a helibase
A location in the vicinity of the incident at which helicopters may be parked, maintained, fueled and equipped for fire operations.
Define a helispot
Temporary locations where helicopters can land, load and off-load
personnel, equipment and supplies. Large incidents may have several Helispots.
What key information must be included in the pre-work safety briefing?
- The Chain of Command
- Designated Lookouts (if any)
- Communications plan outlining communications between fire fighters and between firefighters and their immediate supervisor.
- At least two Escape Routes that lead to adequate Safety Zones noted in case fire fighters and equipment are threatened by sudden changes in fire
behaviour. - Known fireline hazards. Every fire fighter is responsible for alerting other fire
fighters about any fireline hazard – note and make others aware of any possible danger areas such as changes in fire behaviour, snags or any other safety hazards. - Safe work procedures to be used
- Current and expected fire behaviour
- Fire suppression strategies, current fire activities and progress
- Suppression tasks the crew will be accomplishing
- Individual work assignments
What are the components of the LACES Safe Work Procedures?
Lookouts
Anchor Points
Communications
Escape Routes
Safety Zones
What is the role of Lookouts in LACES?
Lookouts are experienced firefighters that can continually size-up a fire.
Fire environment characteristics and fire behavior are used to establish an effective lookout system. More than one Lookout may be required. Lookouts scout the fire, leaving the crew on their own. Contact must be maintained with the crew.
What is the role of Communications in LACES?
Firefighters must remain in constant communications with the entire fireline organization and ensure that all information is understood and passed on. They are responsible to warn other firefighters of identified fire hazards. Working alone or out of earshot of other crew members is not allowed.
What is the role of Escape Routes in LACES?
They provide for rapid access to safety zones for firefighters retreating from a threatened fireline position. The effectiveness of escape routes changes continuously, due to fire behaviour. The most common escape route is the fireline. On indirect or parallel fireline, a fire which jumps over the fireline can severely reduce the escape route options available to the firefighters. Unless safety zones have been identified ahead as well as to the rear, firefighters retreat may not be possible. There must always be more than one escape route that leads to an effective safety zone.
They must be scouted, timed and marked. A single escape route may be cut off.
What is the role of Safety Zones in LACES?
Safety Zones are planned locations where firefighters, threatened by fire hazards, may find adequate refuge from danger. The effectiveness of a safety zone is
dependent on its ability to allow all firefighters to shelter from heat, smoke, rolling debris, falling timber and snags etc. The burned area may be the best and simplest, but also consider water sources, or large areas cleared of flammable vegetation.
What is the Role of Anchor Points in LACES?
Anchor Point is an advantageous location, usually a barrier to fire spread, from which to start or finish construction of a control line. If done properly this will prohibit fire from establishing itself on the other side of an unsuspecting crew who could end up being surrounded with little chance for escape. An example of an anchor point could be a river, road, location without fuels or using a second crew to produce line in the opposite direction (starting at the back end of the fire and have two crews start their line on either flank towards the head).
What are the 3 R’s of Evacuation Procedures?
Retreat
Regroup
Reassess
What is important to remember during Fireline Evacuation?
If the crew leader decides to move the crew back from the fireline along an
escape route to a safety zone, the following procedures will be used by all fire
fighters:
Stay with your crew and follow the crew leader’s instructions.
* Take hand tools and packs (unless ordered to drop them by the crew
leader).
* Do not panic.
* Do not run.
How can you shelter yourself if you are trapped by a fire without a fire shelter?
Protecting your lungs and airways is your one chance for survival. Fire resistant
clothing is the primary means of protection during entrapment. Advise immediate
supervisor (Crew Leader) of the situation. Request retardant drops on fuels surrounding your location.
1. Attempt to shelter within the burned area
2. Find an area of the fire front that consists of light fuels.
3. Protect yourself as much as possible — ensure that sleeves are down, collar
up, gloves and goggles are on, use a shovel blade or jacket to deflect radiant
heat from the face.
4. Take a deep breath and move quickly through the fire front into the burned
area.
* AVOID BREATHING HOT AIR — HOT GASES CAN FATALLY DAMAGE
AIRWAYS AND LUNGS.
5. Keep moving back and away from the fire front. Watch for falling snags and
rocks.
* If you are unable to access the burned area — attempt to shelter on the
ground.
* Find a fuel-free depression or trench, preferably behind a rock or dirt pile (to
block radiant heat).
* The side of a ridge away from the advancing fire is also a good location, but
you may later have to move back into the burned area if sparks ignite fuels on
the ridge below you (and the fire starts burning back up the lee slope towards
you).
* Benches or roads on the side of a hill are good choices when you lie along
the uphill side of the road or bench — watch for rolling materials from
upslope.
* Other possible sites include helispots, fire control lines and stump holes of up-rooted trees.
6. Lie flat on the ground, parallel to the flame front and curl your arms and hands
around your head and ears for protection.
7. Cover yourself with clothing and/or dirt and take shallow breaths at ground
level.
8. Remain on the ground until the fire passes. STAYING LOW AND PROTECTING YOUR AIRWAY IS YOUR ONLY CHANCE TO SURVIVE
UNDER THESE CONDITIONS.
* Rising above the ground, even a few inches, can be fatal. Once you commit
yourself, do not move.
What factors contribute to hazardous topopgrahy?
Hazardous topography and topography changes (even minor changes) that unexpectedly increases fire rate of spread include:
* steep slopes;
* aspect – south facing;
* chimneys, gullies and canyons.
What is fire entrapment?
Fire entrapment occurs when a
fire suddenly changes its direction and rate of spread and
prevents fire fighters from moving along escape routes to
safety zones.
What are the 5 basic hazards of a wildland fire environment?
- Fire entrapment
- Dangerous trees
- Rocks and rolling debris
- Fireline heavy equipment or aircraft
- Unsafe personal behaviour.
What are hazardous fuels?
These are fuels that can spread fire quickly include:
* Fine fuels – grass, needles, twigs, small trees and logging slash.
* Dead or diseased fuels – cured grasses, dead standing or downed trees, ‘red
needle’ branches.
* Closely spaced fuels – dense forest, ladder fuels to ground, large amounts of dead and downed fuels on the forest floor.
* Unburned fuels between firefighters and the fire edge or below fire fighters on
steep slopes
How should firefighting personnel practice Fire Entrapment Avoidance?
Fire fighters must recognize the
fuels, weather and topography that can cause hazardous fire
behaviour and make use of LACES
before fire entrapment occurs.
Do not fight fire in a situation that compromises your safety. Stay alert and be aware of changing conditions.
What factors contribute to hazardous weather?
Weather factors that contribute to unpredictable and/or high rates of spread
include:
* wind increasing or changing direction;
* high temperatures and low humidities;
* prolonged drought – low fuel moisture;
* thunderstorms can cause strong and gusty winds, wind shifts and downdrafts.
What other factors outside of hazardous fuel, weather, and topography can lead to fire entrapment?
Fire Behaviour
* Multiple spot fires or extensive spotting activity
Communications Failures
* Communications failures or lack of communication
How can you shelter yourself if you are trapped by a fire with a fire shelter?
Fire shelters are tent-like, foil structures designed to shelter a firefighter from
radiant heat during a fire entrapment incident. The fire shelter is folded into a
small pack and carried on the fire fighters belt when not in use.
How can unsafe personal beheaviour endanger firefighters?
Fire fighters must make an individual commitment to perform every task with safety as the foremost consideration.
Fire fighters must constantly guard against unsafe personal behaviour including:
* working while fatigued,
* being overconfident,
* rushing or working too fast,
* panicking,
* not following directions from the Crew Leader,
* not understanding directions,
* not communicating clearly.
How can rocks and rolling debris become a hazard?
Ground fire can burn off thick layers of organic soil and moss leaving rocks and
other large debris (logs, fire equipment ) in the burnt- out soil, unstable and ready
to roll downhill. Even relatively small rocks hurtling down a mountainside can
inflict fatal injuries upon fire fighters. Heavy equipment, helicopter downwash
and fire fighters moving across slopes can all trigger falling rocks or boulders.
Fire fighters should call out ‘ROCK!’ if rocks or other debris, are kicked loose
accidentally or observed rolling downslope.
How can fireline heavy equipment or aircrafts endanger firefighting personnel?
Heavy equipment can endanger fire fighters when trees and rocks,
moved by the heavy equipment, fall into the work area.
Heavy equipment use on slopes is especially hazardous and crews
must never work downslope of any
heavy equipment.
Aircraft operations can endanger fire
fighters when downdraft gusts
caused by helicopters or airtankers knock trees or widow-makers onto fire fighters and/or accelerate fire
activity.
Fireline aircraft operations require that fire fighters be especially vigilant and
maintain ‘heads up’ visual contact with the aircraft until it has left the area.
What is a Wildland/Urban Interface fire and what hazards do they pose?
A wildland/urban interface (interface) fire can ignite within a building and spread to nearby forests, or spread from burning vegetation to ignite homes, communities, or commercial structures. From the perspective of fire suppression
and safety, wildland/urban interface fires are not simply wildfires and structure fires combined; they present challenges and safety concerns to fire fighters,
unique to these types of fires.
What additional environmental hazards are present in Wildland/Urban Interace fires?
- inadequate vehicle access and vehicle escape routes
- overhead power lines
- propane and natural gas
- Hydrogen Sulphide gas
- unknown fuel types (buildings, vehicles, etc)
- hazardous materials
Describe the protocol for turning on a radio
The ON-OFF switch is located on top of the radio – usually on the volume
control.
* Turn the ON-OFF switch / volume control clockwise.
* Turn the squelch control (located beside the volume control – if not, squelch control is automatic) clockwise to a point just past where the static noise cuts
out.
* Adjust volume as desired.
The radio is now set up to monitor whatever channel is selected on the
numbered channel selector (located on the top of the radio near the volume /
squelch controls).
Describe the protocol for radio transmission
- Plan ahead for what you have to say - and keep your conversation as brief as possible. Pause before speaking.
- Press the push-to-talk button (located on the side of the ‘hand-held’ radio) in
firmly and hold it. - Speak slowly and clearly into the speaker in a normal voice. Release the
button to listen.
Recite the Phonetic Alphabet
Alpha
Bravo
Charlie
Delta
Echo
Foxtrot
Golf
Hotel
India
Juliet
Kilo
Lima
Mike
November
Oscar
Papa
Quebec
Romeo
Sierra
Tango
Uniform
Viktor
Whiskey
X-ray
Yankee
Zulu
Describe the MAYDAY procedure and the steps involved
The ‘Mayday’ distress transmission is only used in situations of grave danger (life
threatening), such as serious injury, fire entrapment, aircraft accidents etc.
1. Make sure the radio is turned on.
2. Do not change the channel selector.
3. Call “MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY,” followed by “this is….” and identify your
station or self, your location, and the nature of the emergency.
- All stations hearing your call will monitor all transmissions on that channel and one station (usually the one nearest or most able to assist) will respond and make arrangements to assist.
- If you do not get any response after several attempts, set channel
selector to CH1/F1 and repeat steps 1 – 3. Changing locations (move upslope or into a clearing) may help. - If you still do not get any response, listen to the other channels, findone with some activity and repeat steps 1 – 3.
Describe the 3 basic principle of wildland fire suppression
- Fast Initial Attack – be organized, complete a thorough assessment, move a
crew to the fire as quickly as possible, and stop the fire from spreading. - Aggressive Action – deploy adequate resources, work efficiently to quickly
bring the fire under control. - Prompt and Complete Mop-Up – when the fire is contained, a thorough
mop-up must commence immediately.
What are the 3 ways to attack a fire for fire suppression?
- Remove the fuel by creating a fuel-free control line between fire and fuel, and
ignite unburned fuel. - Remove the air by covering burning material with soil or fire foam.
- Remove the heat by cooling the fire with water
What is the importance of a control line?
A control line is necessary at every fire. The control line may be a combination
of man-made firelines or natural fire barriers (e.g. rivers). The term “fireguard” used historically is not accepted today. Correct terminology is ‘fireline’ referring
to man-made lines and control line is used to describe a combination of barriers or completed firelines.
The fire fighter’s chief job is to construct the fireline. The fire fighter digs below
the surface of the ground to the mineral layer of soil. This procedure clears fuels
(dry leaves and duff, including roots) and prevents the fire from spreading.
What is the main consideration to have when constructing a fireline?
The depth of the fireline depends on fuel and soil type plus the size of the fire. On average, the fireline built with hand
tools, is not more than 30-60 cm (12-24”) wide. The depth of the line is always to mineral layer of the soil.
What are the main points to remember when constructing a fireline?
- Start from a secure or safe location (Anchor Point).
- When possible keep the fireline short.
- Avoid sharp angles.
- When possible, construct firelines through open areas rather than fighting
through dense or heavy fuels. - Pay attention to normal daily wind shifts.
- Complete the control line by linking sections of fireline and when possible, tie
in existing barriers.
Where should firelines be placed and what factors influence their placement?
Firelines can be placed on the fire perimeter or ahead of the fire. Placement depends on the fire’s complexity and the overall attack plan, which is determined during the assessment and constantly re-assessed.
What should be done to address vital areas during fireline construction?
Take prompt action on all vital areas without becoming bogged down at one location to prevent the fire from escaping elsewhere.
How should snags be handled during fireline construction?
Snags are extremely hazardous and should be handled by a trained dangerous tree faller.
How can grass or tree needles spread fire and how should this be managed?
Grass or tree needles can easily spread fire to heavy fuel. Throw soil or spray water on the fire edge or scrape a narrow fireline immediately against the fire edge.
What are ladder fuels, and how should they be managed along the fireline?
Ladder fuels are low-hanging limbs and small trees that can allow fire to spread to the crowns. They should be cut off, small trees removed, and all fuel beneath trees cleared.
What is hot-spotting and what are the steps involved?
Hot-spotting involves moving from one intense fire area to another and making them safe by cooling with soil or water, separating fuels, knocking down low-hanging limbs, and digging narrow firelines around hot spots.
How should rolling hazards like logs and cones be managed to prevent fire spread?
Turn logs to lie up and down the slope or block them with rocks to prevent rolling. Dig trenches below logs that may roll to prevent fire spread.
How should high-intensity burning piles of limbs and logs be managed?
Piles of limbs and logs cause high-intensity burning and may shoot flames and sparks. Separate the piles, cool them down with soil, and build a fireline around them.
What are the 3 main fire attack methods?
- Direct method
- Parallel method
- Indirect method
Describe the direct method of fire attack
This attack method is normally used to
suppress a slow moving fire. The
fireline is constructed directly adjacent
to the burning fuel. The fire is attacked
and suppressed immediately. Burning
off islands of fuel near the control line may be necessary to reduce the risk of
spotting across the control line
Describe the parallel method of fire attack
This method is applied in situations where a fire is spreading at a moderate spread rate,
the fire intensity is too high for fire fighters
to perform direct attack, or the burnt area is highly irregular, making direct attack inefficient. The fireline is constructed as
close to the fire as heat and flames permit.
This technique helps to control the fire as
opposed to immediately stopping it (Direct Attack). Igniting unburned fuel between the fireline and the fire reinforces the line and speeds up the control effort by consuming or burning out fuel between the fireline
and the fire perimeter.
Describe the indirect method of fire attack
This is a method whereby the control
line is strategically located to take
advantage of favourable terrain and
natural barriers or breaks well in
advance (several hundred metres to
several kilometers) of the fire perimeter.
Used under the direction of a senior,
experienced Incident Commander, a backfire is set to stop the advancing fire.
What tasks must be completed in the Mop-Up
- Extinguish all smouldering material along the fire edge after the spread has
been stopped. - Place all rolling fuel so it cannot roll across the line or trench below it.
- Make sure that all burning fuel either burns itself out or is spread or buried to
stop spark travel. - Clear the line on both sides of all special threats such as snags, rotten logs,
stumps, singed brush and low-hanging limbs of trees. - Search for underground burning roots near the line.
- Mop up all material adjacent to the line on large fires and over the entire fire
area on small fires to ensure that the fire or embers cannot blow, spot or roll over the control line. - Watch out for smouldering spot fires across the line in front of the main head
fire or below the main fire on a slope. - Burning snags must be felled or knocked over in a location where they will not
roll or slide down the hill. - Extinguish standing “safe” trees, clear or dig a fireline around the area in which burning material has rolled.
Describe a Mop-Up in fire suppression
Mop-up is the process of reinforcing the control line after a fire is brought under control and before suppression work is reduced to patrol. It is crucial for successful fire suppression to prevent the fire from escaping control lines, which could lead to additional damage and resource expenditure. For small fires, the goal is to extinguish all smouldering material within the fireline. For large fires, the objective is to extinguish smouldering material within a secure strip inside the fireline, with the width of the strip determined by the Incident Commander based on the fire’s size and conditions.
What is cold trailing and what does it involve?
Cold trailing is a method of
determining whether a fire is still
burning. It involves careful and
methodical inspection of burned
material and surrounding area by
carefully feeling with the bare hand.
Efficient use of this technique will help
you detect hotspots that are otherwise
invisible.
What is the protocol once a fire is controlled and mopped up?
The Incident Commander will direct firefighters to continue patrolling the control line to prevent escapes, discover and control spot fires and mop-up whenever necessary.
Patrollers must remain alert for holdovers or “sleepers”. These are hidden fires burning deep inside duff layers or roots. They are virtually undetectable to sight,
as they do not smoke or glow. It may take weeks before an adjacent patch of
fuel is brought up to ignition temperature. Holdovers must be spotted before they
have a chance to ignite the adjacent fuel and cause the fire to escape.
Patrol and inspection may continue for days or weeks. The importance of
adequate patrol and inspection cannot be over-emphasized. To have a fire escape after it has been controlled, mopped-up and in the patrol stage is inexcusable.
What are the 3 types of ignition operations?
- Burning Out
- Burning Off
- Backfiring
Describe the situations in which burning out, burning off, and backfiring are appropriate
Only during the Direct Attack operations (used on lower intensity fires) will a
man-made control line assist to effectively stop a fire; even in these situations, islands of fuel may have to be removed using Burning Off operations to ensure
control line effectiveness. In complex, intense or difficult situations, the control line will not stop a moving fire on it’s own; instead, it will be used as an anchor
from which to initiate Burning Out (Parallel Attack) operations on moderate intensity fires, or Backfiring (Indirect Attack) operations on high intensity fires.
Describe Burning Off
Burning Off is an attack method where islands of fuel within the fire perimeter are
ignited under controlled conditions to eliminate the potential of re-burning of these fuels and short distance spotting over the control line. This is a small scale routine operation. It is almost always accomplished by hand ignition (using the hand-held drip torch).
Burning Out is used in conjunction with the
parallel attack method. It is used where in a fire
is set by the fire crew along the inside edge of the control line or natural barrier to consume unburned fuels between the line and the fire perimeter. Burning out is a limited, small scale routine operation as opposed to “backfiring”. It
is accomplished either by hand ignition (using the hand-held drip torch) or aerial ignition (using the helitorch or aerial ignition device).
