final study guide

Question 1

correlation vs causation

Answer 1

Correlation vs. Causation: While a correlation can indicate a potential relationship
between variables, it does not establish a cause-and-effect relationship. For
instance, if a study finds a correlation between ice cream sales and crime rates, it
doesn’t mean that eating ice cream causes crime or vice versa. A third factor, such
as hot weather, could be driving both trends. Always consider alternative
explanations and potential confounding variables

Question 2

Reliability

Answer 2

Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. A reliable
measure will produce similar results across multiple trials or observers. For
example, if a scale consistently measures a person’s weight as 150 pounds, it is
considered reliable, even if the person’s actual weight is different

Question 3

Validity

Answer 3

alidity, on the
other hand, refers to the accuracy of a measure – whether it is truly measuring what
it intends to measure. For example, a questionnaire designed to measure
depression should accurately reflect the symptoms and severity of depression

Question 4

of Reliability:
 Test-retest reliability

Answer 4

assesses the consistency of scores over time.

Question 5

Inter-rater reliability

Answer 5

measures the degree of agreement between
different raters or observers

Question 6

Construct validity

Answer 6

assesses whether a measure accurately
represents the underlying construct or concept it is intended to
measure

Question 7

nternal validity

Answer 7

refers to the extent to which a study can establish a
cause-and-effect relationship between variables, minimizing the
influence of confounding variables.

Question 8

External validity:

Answer 8

refers to the extent to which the findings of a study
can be generalized to other populations or settings

Question 9

bservational Studies:

Answer 9

Researchers observe and collect data without
manipulating any variables

Question 10

Cross-sectional studies

Answer 10

Data is collected at a single point in time.
 Longitudinal studies: Data is collected over an extended period

Question 11

Stratified longitudinal studies

Answer 11

: Participants are divided into
subgroups (strata) based on shared characteristics, and data is
collected over time.

Question 12

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs):

Answer 12

Participants are randomly
assigned to either an experimental group (receives the intervention) or
a control group.

Question 13

Quasi-experimental studies

Answer 13

Like RCTs but without random
assignment of participants.

Question 14

re-experimental studies

Answer 14

These designs lack a control group or may
have other limitations that weaken the strength of the evidence.

Question 15

Qualitative Research Approaches

Answer 15

These approaches aim to understand
experiences, perspectives, and meanings rather than focusing on numerical
data. Examples include

Question 16

Ethnographies:

Answer 16

Focus on understanding cultures or cultural groups

Question 17

Phenomenological studies:

Answer 17

Explore the lived experiences of
individuals related to a particular phenomenon

Question 18

Target Population

Answer 18

The entire group of individuals to which the study wants
to generalize the results

Question 19

Accessible Population:

Answer 19

The portion of the target population that is
accessible to the researcher

Question 20

Sampling Bias:

Answer 20

Occurs when the sample chosen for the study is not
representative of the target population, which can lead to inaccurate
conclusions.

Question 21

Null Hypothesis (H0):

Answer 21

The hypothesis that there is no significant difference
or relationship between variables.

Question 22

Alternative Hypothesis (Ha)

Answer 22

The hypothesis that there is a significant
difference or relationship between variables.

Question 23

Type I Error:

Answer 23

Rejecting a true null hypothesis (false positive)

Question 24

Type II Error:

Answer 24

Failing to reject a false null hypothesis (false negative).

Question 25

P-value:

Answer 25

The probability of obtaining the observed results (or more extreme results) if the null hypothesis is true. A p-value below a predetermined threshold (e.g., 0.05) typically leads to the rejection of the null hypothesis.

Question 26

Quantitative Data Analysis:

Answer 26

Uses statistical methods to analyze numerical data. The goal of data representation is to present findings clearly and concisely using tables, graphs, and figures.

Question 27

Qualitative Data Analysis

Answer 27

Involves interpreting non-numerical data, such as text, images, or audio recordings. Coding is a key step where researchers assign labels to segments of data to categorize and group them thematically

Question 28

Tri-Council Policy Statement (TCPS 2):

Answer 28

The TCPS 2 provides guidelines for ethical research involving humans in Canada. It is based on three core principles: o Respect for Persons: Recognizing the inherent dignity and worth of all individuals, respecting their autonomy, and protecting those with diminished autonomy. o Concern for Welfare: Protecting the well-being of participants, minimizing risks, and maximizing benefits. o Justice: Ensuring fairness and equity in the distribution of benefits and burdens of research

Question 29

rivacy

Answer 29

efers to an individual's right to control access to their personal information and to be free from intrusio

Question 30

Confidentiality

Answer 30

Refers to the researcher's obligation to protect information entrusted by participants

Question 31

Epistemology:

Answer 31

The study of knowledge and justified belief. It explores questions about how we acquire knowledge, what constitutes valid knowledge, and how we can justify our beliefs.

Question 32

Ontology:

Answer 32

The study of being and the nature of reality. It explores questions about what exists, what the basic categories of being are, and the relationships between them.

Question 33

ositivism

Answer 33

Emphasizes objective, measurable observations and seeks to establish universal laws and principles. It relies heavily on quantitative methods and hypothesis testing.

Question 34

nterpretivism:

Answer 34

Focuses on understanding the subjective experiences and meanings individuals attach to their world. It favors qualitative methods and inductive reasoning.

Question 35

Pragmatism

Answer 35

Emphasizes the practical implications and usefulness of research findings. Pragmatists are often open to using both quantitative and qualitative methods, depending on the research question

Question 36

Deductive Reasoning

Answer 36

Starts with general principles or premises and uses logical steps to arrive at specific conclusions. For example, if the premise is "All dogs are mammals" and the second premise is "Fido is a dog," then the conclusion is "Fido is a mammal."

Question 37

Inductive Reasoning:

Answer 37

Starts with specific observations or experiences and draws general conclusions. For example, observing that several dogs bark might lead to the conclusion that all dogs bark. Inductive reasoning is prone to biases and does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion

Question 38

Positivism:

Answer 38

Seeks objective truths through empirical observation and measurement

Question 39

Constructivism:

Answer 39

Believes knowledge is constructed through individual and social interactions

Question 40

Pragmatism:

Answer 40

Focuses on the practical implications and consequences of research findings

Question 41

Transformative Paradigms

Answer 41

Seek to address social justice issues and promote positive social change

Question 42

Two-Eyed Seeing

Answer 42

Emphasizes the integration of Indigenous and Western knowledge systems

Question 43

Bottom-Up Processing

Answer 43

Processing information from the senses upward to the brain, analyzing basic features before constructing a complete perception. For example, recognizing a letter 'A' by first processing its individual lines and angles

Question 44

Top-Down Processing

Answer 44

Using prior knowledge, expectations, and context to interpret incoming sensory information. For example, reading a partially obscured word by using the context of the sentence to fill in the missing letters

Question 45

onfirmation Bias

Answer 45

The tendency to favor information that confirms our pre- existing beliefs

Question 46

Motivated Reasoning

Answer 46

The tendency to process information in a way that protects our self-esteem or reinforces desired beliefs

Question 48

The "Replication Crisis":

Answer 48

Refers to the challenge of replicating the findings of previously published research. This crisis highlights the importance of rigorous research methods, transparency in reporting, and the need to consider potential biases and limitations in research

Question 49

Confounding Variable:  Double-Blind Study:  Independent Variable:  Dependent Variable:  Knowledge Translation  Meta-Analysis:

Answer 49

Confounding Variable: An extraneous variable that correlates with both the independent and dependent variables, potentially distorting the relationship between them.  Double-Blind Study: Neither the researcher nor the participant knows which treatment the participant is receiving. This helps to reduce bias in research.  Independent Variable: The variable that is manipulated or changed by the researcher.  Dependent Variable: The variable that is measured to observe the effect of the independent variable.  Knowledge Translation: The process of moving research findings into practice to improve health outcomes.  Meta-Analysis: A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon.

Question 49

Member Checking:  P-hacking:  Qualitative Research: non-numerical data.  Quantitative Research:  Systematic Review: .  Triangulation: Using

Answer 49

Member Checking: A technique used in qualitative research to ensure that the researcher's interpretations accurately reflect the participants' experiences and perspectives.  P-hacking: Manipulating data analysis procedures to achieve a desired p-value, often leading to false positive results.  Qualitative Research: Explores experiences, perspectives, and meanings using non-numerical data.  Quantitative Research: Focuses on measuring and analyzing numerical data to test hypotheses and establish relationships between variables.  Systematic Review: A comprehensive and rigorous review of existing literature on a specific research question.  Triangulation: Using multiple data sources or methods to enhance the credibility and trustworthiness of qualitative research finding