final study guide Flashcards
1
Q
climate change
A
- Increase over time of the average temperature of Earth’s atmosphere and oceans
- more contraversial
2
Q
Keeling curve
A
- shows us the CO2 concentration in atmosphere over time
- exponential increase
3
Q
global verticle energy balance
A
- some energy is trapped by our atmosphere, some leaves and bounces back
4
Q
climate proxies
A
- how we know about past climates
- Tree rings, rock formations, earth material chemical compositions, lake-floor sediments
5
Q
Greenhouse effect
A
- Earth absorbs sunlight, and some energy is given back to space, while some is absorbed - Necessary and natural, but it shouldn’t be enhanced with more gases in the atmosphere
6
Q
carbon cycle
A
- plate tectonics allow for flow of carbon throughout atmosphere
7
Q
three milankovitch cycles
A
- Eccentricity- circular or oval like
- Obliquity- shape of Earth’s orbit
- Precession- wobble that makes the Earth closer of further from the sun
8
Q
ideal combination for glacial development
A
a) circular orbits, which prevent close summer passes
b) small tilts (close to 22.1o) less summer solar heating
c) N.H. summer is farthest from the Sun, which needs a proper combination of the eccentricity and precession
9
Q
global ocean conveyor belt
A
- Heat is transferred through the water to the north towards Iceland
- Warm water exchanges heat with the cooler air becoming colder and saltier
- Near iceland, water becomes more dense (cool and salty) than the water below and sinks, flowing southward along the floor of the Atlantic
10
Q
role of volcanic eruptions
A
- Volcanic eruptions injecting sulfur-containing gases, [SO2 and H2S], into the stratosphere, leading to the formation of liquid sulfate aerosols
11
Q
what extreme weather events are we confident are impacted by climate change?
A
- need more research on things like hurricanes and extra-tropical cyclones, already are very confident on extreme heat and cold
12
Q
internal energy
A
- planet formation energy, gravitational energy, radioactive decay energy
13
Q
gravity
A
- fundamental force that draws matter together
14
Q
potential energy
A
- stored energy
- builds up and drives geological disasters
15
Q
crust
A
- overlies mantle
- light color
- low density rock
16
Q
lithosphere
A
- ridig solid rock
17
Q
asthenosphere
A
- fluid like (plastic rock)
18
Q
strain
A
- can change in form or size of a body due to external forces
19
Q
tension
A
- a state of stress that tends to pull the body apart
20
Q
compression
A
- a state of stress that causes a pushing together
21
Q
shear
A
- slides past eachother
22
Q
isostacy
A
- the less dense material floats on top of more dense material
- impoundment of water in Lake Mead behind Hoover Dam causes area to sink
23
Q
alfred Wegner
A
- came up with Theory of Continental Drift
- German meteorologist
- had 4 main evidences to support his theory that continents drifted apart
24
Q
the theory of continential drift 4 pieces of evidence
A
- fossil evidence- fossils found in different areas from where they are from (split by ocean)
- simmilarities across oceans- rock types, mountain ranges are geologically related but seperated by oceans
- coastlines look like they fit together
- paleoclimate glacial scarring found on rocks in tropical regions, coal in polar regions
25
Q
plate tectonic theory
A
- Harry Hess
- used echo sounding surveys on the ocean floor and came up with the seafloor spreading theory
- convection currents that recycle magma
26
Q
where are new rocks and old rocks?
A
- New rock in middle of ridge, old rock at trenches
27
Q
convergent boundary
A
- push together
- can make mountain ranges and trenches
- subduction zones- one plate sinks below
- this happens when oceanic and continential plates collide
28
Q
divergent boundary
A
- push apart
- pushes old rock away
- get earthquakes here
- ex: mid-atlantic ridge
29
Q
transform boundary
A
- one subducts
- get volnacoes and mountains forming, trenches, deep earthquakes
- ex: san andreas fault
30
Q
oceanic-continential convergence
A
- denser ocean sinks and subducts
- volcanoes
- trenches
- deep earthquakes
31
Q
ring of fire
A
- area around pacific rim
- lots of volcanic activity here
32
Q
continential-continential convergence
A
- Himalayan mountain range
- buckling and pushing
- none subduct
- earthquakes here
33
Q
ocean-ocean convergence
A
- marianas trench
- one moves faster
34
Q
earthquake
A
- vibrations are felt or recorded
- can be caused by a few things: volcanic activity, landslides, movement of the Earth across a fault (most common)
35
Q
faults
A
- fracture in Earth across which the two sides move relative to each other
- are complex zones of breakage with irregular surfaces, many miles wide and long
36
Q
elastic rebound theory
A
- Elastic strain accumulates across a fault
- When elastic strain energy exceeds the friction along the fault, a rupture occurs, and the rocks snap back into place, releasing stored energy
37
Q
types of faults
A
- dip- slip fault
38
Q
dip-slip fault
A
- dominated by vertical movement
- ore veins often form in fault zones, so
many mines are actually dug out along - caused by pushing or pulling force
39
Q
normal fault
A
- occurs when hangingwall moves
down relative to footwall, and zone of omission results
40
Q
reverse fault
A
- occurs when hangingwall moves up relative to footwall, and zone of repetition results
41
Q
strike-slip fault (right and left lateral faults)
A
- Dominated by horizontal movement
- When straddling a fault, if right-hand side moved towards you, it is a right-lateral fault
- When straddling a fault, if the left-hand side has moved towards you, it is a left-lateral fault
42
Q
dip
A
- angle of inclination from horizontal of tilted layer
43
Q
strike
A
- compass bearing of horizontal line in tilted layer
44
Q
foreshocks
A
- smaller events preceeding the earthquakes
45
Q
aftershocks
A
- smaller events after the earthquake
46
Q
8 things that can form from fault lines
A
- Compression, uplift, hills
and mountains - Extensions, down- dropping, basins and valleys
47
Q
epicenter
A
- the point on the Earth’s surface where the rupture happened
48
Q
hypocenter or focus
A
- the point on the faultline underground where the rupture actually happened
49
Q
Seismometer
A
- drum with a piece of paper on it and a pen
- mechanism on it that is sensitive to waves
- records how much energy comes in
- seismology is the study of earthquakes
- seismographs are the graphs that come from a seisometer
50
Q
amplitude
A
- baseline to the height/crest
51
Q
waveline
A
- crest to crust
52
Q
period
A
- time between waves (1/frequency)
53
Q
frequency
A
- number of waves in a second
54
Q
body waves
A
- pass through entire planet
- could be primary (P) or secondary (S)
- most abundant at high frequencies
- most energetic closer to epicenter
55
Q
surface waves
A
- move through surface only
- Love and Rayleigh type waves
- take longer to complete a cycle and they carry a significant amount of energy far from epicenter
56
Q
Love and Rayleigh waves
A
- called L waves because they are long waves
- Love waves are side to side (horizontal)
- Rayleigh waves are like rolling waves (elliptical)
57
Q
P waves
A
- primary (happen first)
- fastest to reach recording station
- can move through solid, liquid, and gas
- moves in compressional fashion (push-pull) like slinky
58
Q
S waves
A
- second, slower to reach recording station
- shear waves
- side to side and up and down
- only travel through solids, but due to the shearing action, they cause severe damage
59
Q
seismic waves
A
- defined by the way they displace the ground
60
Q
locating earthquakes
A
- Requires at least 3 seismic stations
- Measure the time difference between P and S wave arrivals
- Convert time difference into distance
61
Q
Richter scale
A
- deals with the amount of energy
- logrithmic
- For every 10-fold increase in the
amplitude of the recorded seismic wave,
the Richter magnitude increases one
number
62
Q
Mercalli Intensity
A
- based on damage
63
Q
moment magnitude
A
- Estimates the torque required to move rocks along a fault with a given resistance
64
Q
predicting earthquakes
A
- hard to predict, but there are some precursors
- we know where they happen (plate boundaries)
65
Q
societal effects of Earthquakes
A
- Quality of construction, preparedness of people, time of day
66
Q
1886 Charleston Earthquake
A
- 60 deaths
- magnitude 7
67
Q
Loma Prieta
A
- magnitude 7.5
- caused 63 deaths
- along San Andreas fault line
68
Q
Nepal earthquake 2015
A
- 9,000 people died
- 8 magnitude
- triggered avalanche on Mt. Everest
69
Q
direct effects from 1995 Kobe, Japan earthquake
A
- solely linked to deformation of ground near the fault itself (fault rupture)
- Many earthquakes do not rupture the surface
- Hyogo-Ken Nanbu rupture in rural island area
- Ground displaced just 3 meters
70
Q
tsunamis
A
- means harbor wave in Japanese
- see them mostly in inlets or harbors
- different than tidal waves
71
Q
crest
A
- top of the wave
72
Q
trough
A
- lowest point of the wave
73
Q
wave height
A
- distance between crest and trough
74
Q
wavelength
A
- distance between two troughs or crests
75
Q
rogue wave
A
- unusually tall wave
- Created as waves become synchronized
76
Q
seiches
A
- Oscillating waves in enclosed body of water – sea, bay, lake, swimming pool
- Energy from strong winds or earthquake
77
Q
causes of tsunamis
A
- earthquakes in deep ocean
- landslides
- volcanic eruption
- land that collapses into a body of water
78
Q
why do these waves happen?
A
- Water is not compressible
- Cannot absorb fault-movement energy
- Water transmits energy throughout the
ocean in waves (drop a rock into a pond) - Vertical-fault movements most commonly
cause tsunami
79
Q
tsunami warning
A
- feel earthquake
- see a significant draw down in sea level
- hear the wave coming
80
Q
what to do during a tsunami
A
- seek high ground
- go upstairs in a well built building
- climb a tree
81
Q
costliest tsunami
A
- 2011, Fukushima Japan
- over 19,000 deaths
- caused by 9.0 magnitude earthquake
- more than $30 billion
- Caused a nuclear meltdown at 3 reactors
