Final sentences Flashcards
Columbian Exchange
The Columbian Exchange old began in the late 15 century following Christopher Columbus’ 1st voyage to the America’s in 1492. It is the widespread transfer of plants, animals, human populations, culture, and technology between the old world (Europe and Africa) and the new world (the Americas). The exchange brought new food resources to Europe, such as maize, potatoes, and tobacco, which led to population growth and economic development. It also brought new animals, such as horses, which revolutionized transportation and warfare. The exchange also had negative consequences, such as the transfer of diseases like smallpox, which devastated indigenous populations in the Americas, killing millions.
Triangular Trade
The triangular trade is a system of trade routes that linked Europe, Africa, and the Americas and developed in the 16th century after Europeans arrived in the Americas. European merchants traded textiles, rum, and guns to Africa in exchange for slaves, who were then transported to the Americas to work on plantations. The profits from the sale of slave-produced goods like sugar and tobacco were used to buy more European goods. The slave trade had significant social and economic impacts, including the enslavement of millions of Africans who suffered tremendous hardship and effects are still seen today as it laid the foundation for centuries of racial inequality and systemic oppression in the United States. Additionally, the growth of new industries in Europe lead to the development of a wealthy merchant class.
Royal Absolutism
During the 17th and 18th centuries in Europe, scholars like Thomas Hobbes greatly influenced the development of royal absolutism, as he argued in his book “The Leviathan” that a robust, central ruler with complete control over all aspects of society was necessary to maintain order and prevent chaos. Royal absolutism was a form of monarchy that held absolute power and authority over the state and its citizens, characterized by the centralization of power, suppression of dissent, and the use of state power to enforce religious conformity. The monarch’s authority over all aspects of society, such as the economy, military, and religious affairs, led to social unrest and ultimately the French Revolution. Notable monarchs of this era include Louis XIV of France, Peter the Great of Russia, Frederick the Great of Prussia, and Charles I of England, all of whom sought to strengthen their kingdoms and increase their own power and prestige through royal absolutism.
Peter the Great
Peter the Great, a Russian Tsar and Emperor who reigned from 1682 to 1725, is best known for his efforts to modernize and westernize Russia through reforms in education, culture, and the military. One of his most significant accomplishments was the establishment of a new capital city, St. Petersburg, which became a symbol of his efforts to transform Russia into a European-style power. Peter also made great strides in military power, expanding the Russian empire’s territory and establishing a standing army while adopting new military tactics. His impacts on society and politics paved the way for Russia’s emergence as a major European power in the 18th and 19th centuries, as his reforms grew several industries, expanded the empire, and developed a strong, centralized state.
The Estates General
The Estates General, a representative assembly in France, was initially gathered by King Philip IV in 1302 during a conflict with the Pope, and composed of 3 estates: Clergy, Nobility, Commoners, to address political and economic issues. They convened periodically until the French Revolution in 1789. During the 1789 meeting, the 3rd estate demanded greater representation and political power, but the King and nobility refused, which led to the formation of the National Assembly. This eventually resulted in the storming of the Bastille, which sparked the French revolution and the downfall of the monarchy.
Olympe de Gouges
Olympe de Gouges was a prominent figure during the Age of Enlightenment in Europe, living from 1748-1793. As a French playwright, feminist, and political activist, she advocated for women’s rights such as the right to vote and participate in politics, and opposed slavery. Her writings, including plays and pamphlets, challenged prevailing attitudes towards gender and sexuality, and she is best known for “The Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen”. De Gouges also wrote extensively about the abolition of slavery and the rights of enslaved people, publishing “Slavery in the French Colonies” in 1788. Although she was executed during the Reign of Terror in 1793, her legacy continued to inspire feminist movements throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, and her ideas helped shape the ideals of the French Revolution and influence the development of modern democracy.
Laissez-faire
Laissez-faire is an economic philosophy that advocates for minimal government intervention in economic affairs. It emerged during the 18th and 19th centuries as a response to mercantilist policies, which were characterized by government regulations and restrictions on trade. Laissez-faire was championed by thinkers like Adam Smith and Friedrich Hayek, who argued that economic prosperity could be achieved through free market competition and individual self-interest, rather than through government regulation. The impact of laissez-faire on the development of capitalism was significant, as it provided the intellectual framework for the rise of industrial capitalism and the growth of global trade. Laissez-faire occurred in various countries during the 18th and 19th centuries, it was particularly influential in countries such as Great Britain, France, and the United States, where it served as a basis for the development of capitalist economic systems.
Origins of WW1
The origins of the First World War can be traced back to a complex web of political, economic, and social factors that had been building up in Europe for decades before the outbreak of hostilities in 1914. The system of alliances that had emerged in the early years of the 20th century had created a situation in which a crisis in one part of Europe could quickly escalate into a full-blown war involving multiple countries.
One major factor that contributed to the outbreak of war was the intense nationalism that had taken hold across Europe. Nationalism had helped to fuel the growth of powerful nation-states, but it also created a climate of suspicion and hostility between rival powers. Countries such as Germany, France, and Russia were eager to assert their dominance on the world stage, leading to a dangerous arms race and a series of diplomatic crises.
Another factor that contributed to the war was the complex system of alliances that had emerged in the years leading up to 1914. These alliances, which had been designed to maintain a balance of power in Europe, instead created a situation in which a single act of aggression could quickly escalate into a major conflict. When Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia in July 1914, a chain reaction was set in motion that soon engulfed much of Europe.
In terms of German responsibility for the war, there is no doubt that Germany played a significant role in the events that led up to the outbreak of hostilities. The aggressive foreign policies pursued by Kaiser Wilhelm II and his advisors helped to create a climate of tension and mistrust in Europe, while Germany’s decision to support Austria-Hungary in its conflict with Serbia ultimately proved to be the trigger for the war. However, it is important to remember that Germany was not the only power responsible for the war, and that many other factors were also at play. In the end, it is difficult to assign sole responsibility for the war to any one country or group of countries.
Social Darwinism
Social Darwinism was an intellectual outlook that emerged in Europe in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It was based on the application of Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection to human societies, arguing that the most “fit” societies would survive and prosper, while the weaker ones would inevitably perish. This theory was used to justify European imperialism in Africa and Asia, as well as to shape national rivalries in the era prior to the First World War.
The basic premise of Social Darwinism was that competition and struggle were natural and necessary in society, and that the strong should dominate the weak. This theory was used to justify European imperialism in Africa and Asia, as European nations believed that they were superior and more “fit” than the native populations they encountered. They saw it as their duty to “civilize” and “Christianize” these people, believing that they were doing them a favor by bringing them the benefits of modern civilization. In reality, however, imperialism often involved brutal exploitation and subjugation of native populations, leading to violence, suffering, and loss of life.
Furthermore, Social Darwinism also played a significant role in shaping national rivalries in the era prior to the First World War. European nations were engaged in a fierce competition for power and influence, with each nation seeking to prove its superiority over the others. This competition was driven by a belief in the superiority of one’s own nation and the inferiority of others, with each nation seeking to expand its territory and influence in order to demonstrate its strength and power.
In conclusion, Social Darwinism was a pervasive intellectual outlook in Europe and around the world during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It was used to justify European imperialism in Africa and Asia, as well as to shape national rivalries in the era prior to the First World War. Despite the many negative consequences of these ideas, they continue to influence our thinking and actions today, reminding us of the dangers of arrogance, intolerance, and blind belief in our own superiority.
Fascism
Fascism is a political ideology that emerged in the early 20th century. It is characterized by authoritarianism, extreme nationalism, a rejection of liberal democracy, and a strong emphasis on the importance of the nation-state. Fascism also typically promotes aggressive expansionism, a cult of personality around the leader, and the use of violence and terror to maintain power.
Both German National Socialism and Italian Fascism share many of these defining features. They both rejected liberal democracy, emphasized the importance of the nation-state, and used violence and terror to maintain power. However, they also had important differences. German National Socialism was characterized by a particular emphasis on race, anti-Semitism, and a belief in the superiority of the Aryan race. Italian Fascism, on the other hand, placed less emphasis on race and more on the idea of a “corporate state,” where different sectors of society would work together in the interest of the nation.
The appeal of fascism in Germany and Italy during the 1920s and 1930s can be understood in the context of the economic and political turmoil of the time. In both countries, there was a sense of national humiliation and anger following World War I, as well as economic instability and the fear of communist revolution. Fascism promised to restore national pride and order, and to create a strong and prosperous nation through the use of authoritarian power. The charismatic leaders of these movements, Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini, were also able to rally support through their powerful personalities and rhetoric.
In conclusion, fascism is a political ideology characterized by authoritarianism, extreme nationalism, and rejection of liberal democracy. German National Socialism and Italian Fascism share many of these features but also have important differences. The appeal of fascism in Germany and Italy during the 1920s and 1930s can be understood in the context of economic and political instability, national humiliation, and fear of communism.
Hitler’s foreign policy objectives
Hitler’s foreign policy objectives were driven by his belief in the racial superiority of the German people and the need for “Lebensraum,” or living space, for the expanding German population. Hitler sought to establish a vast German empire in Eastern Europe and beyond, which he believed would be achieved through the conquest of neighboring territories. In 1936, Hitler sent troops to the Rhineland, which had been demilitarized under the Treaty of Versailles, and in 1938, he annexed Austria, proclaiming the Anschluss, or union, with Germany.
Hitler then set his sights on Czechoslovakia, which had a large German minority population. He demanded that the Sudetenland region be handed over to Germany, and when the Czechs refused, Hitler threatened war. In September 1938, the Munich Conference was held, at which British and French leaders agreed to Hitler’s demands, hoping to avoid a larger war. However, Hitler’s appetite for conquest continued, and in March 1939, he seized the rest of Czechoslovakia.
Hitler’s next target was Poland, which he viewed as the gateway to the East. In August 1939, Hitler signed a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union, freeing Germany from the fear of a two-front war. On September 1, 1939, German forces invaded Poland, sparking the start of World War II.
Hitler’s nationalist ideology and racial theories played a significant role in shaping his foreign policy objectives. He believed that the German people were the superior race and that they were entitled to dominate other nations. This led to his aggressive expansionist policies, which sought to extend German control over other countries and peoples. The Nazis’ racial theories also led them to view the Slavic peoples of Eastern Europe as inferior, and therefore as suitable targets for conquest and exploitation.
France and Britain responded to Hitler’s aggression with a policy of appeasement, hoping to avoid another devastating war. They allowed Hitler to annex Austria and the Sudetenland, hoping that he would be satisfied and that peace could be maintained. However, this policy only emboldened Hitler, and he continued to pursue his expansionist goals, ultimately leading to the outbreak of World War II.
In conclusion, Hitler’s foreign policy objectives were driven by his nationalist ideology and belief in the racial superiority of the German people. This led to his aggressive expansionist policies, which ultimately led to war in September 1939. The policy of appeasement pursued by France and Britain only served to encourage Hitler’s aggression and led to the outbreak of World War II.
James Watt
James Watt was a Scottish inventor who lived from 1736 to 1819. He is best known for developing the modern steam engine during the late 18th century, which greatly impacted the Industrial Revolution in Britain. Watt’s steam engine was more efficient and practical than previous designs, leading to widespread use in manufacturing, transportation, and agriculture. This helped to power the growth of industry and infrastructure, ultimately transforming the economic and social landscape of Britain and the world.
The Congress of Vienna was held in 1815 in Vienna, Austria, and was attended by representatives of major European powers (Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and France). Its goal was to restore stability and balance of power in Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. The most important figure at the Congress was the Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, who sought to restore the old order in Europe and prevent any one nation from becoming too powerful.The Congress achieved this by redrawing the boundaries of various states and creating a system of alliances to prevent future conflicts. This led to the establishment of a new balance of power in Europe that lasted almost a century and helped to prevent major wars until World War I in 1914. Additionally, the Congress created the Concert of Europe, which was a system of regular meetings between major powers to maintain peace and stability.
Otto von Bismarck
Otto von Bismarck was a German and Prussian statesman who lived from 1815 to 1898. He served as the first Chancellor of Germany from 1871 to 1890. Bismarck is known for his role in the unification of Germany, which he accomplished through a series of wars and diplomacy. He also implemented a series of social reforms, including the establishment of the world’s first welfare state. Bismarck was a master of Realpolitik, which emphasized practicality over ideology, and he was instrumental in shaping the balance of power in Europe during the late 19th century. His policies and leadership helped establish Germany as a major world power and laid the groundwork for future developments in European politics.
Alfred Dreyfus
Alfred Dreyfus was a French military officer who lived from 1859-1935. The events surrounding his life took place primarily in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with the most significant event being his conviction for treason in 1894. The case against him was based on forged evidence and anti-Semitic sentiments, leading to a major scandal in France known as the Dreyfus Affair.
Dreyfus was born and lived in Alsace-Lorraine, which at the time was part of Germany but later became part of France. The Dreyfus Affair took place primarily in Paris but garnered international attention.
Dreyfus’s most significant achievement was exposing the rampant anti-Semitism in the French military and society at large. Despite his wrongful conviction, he continued to fight for justice and was eventually exonerated in 1906. His case had a profound impact on French society and led to a greater awareness of the dangers of anti-Semitism. The affair also became a symbol for the fight against injustice and the importance of due process, influencing human rights movements around the world.
