Final Review Flashcards
Anatomy is the study
structure
Physiology is the study of
funtion
The sum of all chemical reactions that occur in the body is known as
Metabolism
The change a cell undergoes to develop from an unspecialized one to a specialized one is called
differentiation
What is a condition in which the body’s internal environment remains within certain physiological limits
homeostasis
INTERstitial fluid is located?
between the cells in a tissue
Homeostasis is regulated by the nervous system and the…?
endocrine system
What are the three observational techniques?
Palpation (feel surface of body- pulse, temp)
Auscultation (listening)
Percussion (tap on body and listen to echo)
Level of cellular organization from least to most complex
chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organsim
ICF (ITRAcellular fluid)
located within the cells
ECT (EXTRAcellular fluid)
outside the cells
Components of a feedback system
receptor (monitors controlled condition)
control center (determines next action)
effector ( produces response)
Negative Feedback Loop
decreases change (most systems in body)
Positive Feedback Loop
increases change (ex. child birth)
Sagittal Plane
Right and left sides
Midsagittal
equal right and left halves
Parasagittal
unequal right and left halves
Frontal (Coronal) Plane
divides front and back
Transverse (Cross-Sectional)
divides into upper and lower halves
Dorsal Body Cavity
Cranial and Spinal cavities
Ventral Body Cavity
Thoracic and Abdominopelvic cavities
what structure divides the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities
diaphragm
Mediastatinum contains all thoracic organs except
Lungs
- divides organs into two pleural
Visceral Membranes
Cover organ
Parietal Membranes
lines walls of cavity
Lining of abdominal cavity
peritoneum
Four basic tissue types
epithelium, muscle, nervous, connective
Matter
- anything that occupies space
- weight is a factor of gravity
- mass of an object is constant, meaning it does not change
How many elements are found in the body?
What are the 4 main elements in the body
26
- carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
The smallest unity of matter
atom
Atomic number of an atom is the…
number of proton in the nucleus
An unstable or reactive atom will have…
an unfilled energy shell.
Stable: 2,8,18
Unstable: 2,8,1
Ions
Cations
Anion
- atoms that are charged
- Cations- positively charged
- Anions- negatively charged
3 subatomic particles
protons, neutrons, electrons
Nucleus contains
protons and neutrons
Chemical bonds
hold together atoms in molecules and compounds
Ionic Bond
Positively and negatively charged ions attract to form an ionic bond
Covalent Bond are atoms bonded by
sharing pairs of electrons
Polar Covalent Bonds are bonded by
unequal sharing of electrons (Ex. water)
Hydrogen Bonds
are polar covalent bonds between hydrogen and other atoms (ex. surface tension, boiling water, evaporation)
- are usually very weak
Anabolic reactions are
synthesis reactions- two or more atoms, ions, or molecules combine to form new and larger molecules (** usually endergonic)
In Exergonic reactions occurring in the body, energy is
released as bonds are broken and reformed
In Endergonic reactions
energy is absorbed
The energy needed to break bonds and begin a chemical reaction is?
activation energy
Catalysts…
- speed up reactions by lowering activation energy
- orient the colliding particles properly so that they touch at the spots that make the reaction happen
- are unchanged and can be used repeatedly to speed up similar chemical reactions
Potential Energy
Stored energy
Kinetic Energy
energy of motion
Decomposition Reaction is
catabolism- larger molecules are split into smaller atoms, ion, or molecules (*usually exergonic)
Most abundant inorganic substance in the human body
water
Bases
dissociate into OH and have a high pH
Acids
dissociates into H and have a low pH
dissociation
breaking down into ions when dissolved into H20
Solutions
contain solutes dissolved in a solvent
colloid mixture
are large, therefore doesn’t appear clear
suspension mixture
settle out because of size
Water
is the medium of nearly all chemical reactions
-is a polar molecule because there is a partial negative charge near oxygen and a partial positive charge near the hydrogen atoms
Dehydration synthesis
when carbs are bonded together to form larger structures and results in water
hydrolysis
reaction breaking down water
where is glycogen stored
in liver and muscle tissue
monosaccaride
simple sugars
ex glucose, fructose, galactose
disaccharide-
formed by combining 2 monos via dehydration sysnthesis
ex. sucrose, maltose, lactose
What elements do Carbs, fats, and proteins contain
carbs- CHO
fats- CHO
proteins- CHON
triglycerides
3 fatty acides and 1 glycerol
What is the function of ATP
to store energy
All organic compounds contain the elements
carbon and hydrogen
which organic compounds are the main source of energy for ATP production
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are stored in the liver and muscles in the form of
glycogen
A saturated fat is saturated with
hydrogen
basic building blocks of proteins are
amino acids
phospholipids
polar head + 2 nonpolar fatty acid tails
hydophobic
lipid/non polar
hydrophillic
phosphate/polar
amphipathic
contains both hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties
how many amino acids are there
20
peptide bonds
formed by the union of 2 amino acids
Shape of a protein influences its ability to form bonds
a. primary
b. secondary
c. tertiary
d. quaternary
a. primary- unique sequence of A.A (ex. ribosomes)
b. secondary- alphahelix or plated sheet folding (ex. RER)
c. Tertiary- 3d shape of polypeptide change (ex. golgi complex)
d. quaternary- multiple polypeptide chains
Denaturation
hostile environments such as heat, acid, or salts will change proteins 3D shape and destroy its ability to function
Enzymes
protein molecules that act as a catalyst
A nucleotide consists of
nitrogenous base
five carbon sugar (pentose)
phosphate
DNA codes for primary protein structures with …
3 base pair sections called codons
Errors in DNA base pair sequences can result in
mutations
nonfunctional enzymes
cancer
Genes:
are sections of DNA
Control the synthesis of a specific protein
Proteins (function)
form structural framework of the body function as hormones shortens muscles for contraction
RNA
uses ribose sugar
uracil replaces thymine
is a single helix structure instead of double helix
carries genetic message out of nucleus to ribosome
3 types: messenger, ribosomal, and transfer
Organelles that contain enzymes that destroy materials engulfed by a cell are
lysosomes
3 structural areas of a cell
plasma membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm
cytology
study of cell structure
Plasma membrane
barrier that surrounds the cytoplasm of cell
what are the three lipids found within the plasma membrane
phospholipid, glycolipid, cholesterol
Endoplasmic reticulum is either smooth or rough depending on the presence of
ribosomes
cells that are active i the exocytosis would likely contain many..
mitochondria
which form of transport utilizes ATP
active transport
transport proteins within the cell membrane are required to transport a substance across a membrane via
facilitated diffusion
cytoplasm is mostly:
water
integral proteins
extend into or completely across a membrane
if they extend completely across= transmembrane
peripheral proteins
attached to either inner or outer surface of cell membrane and are easily removed
Functions of membrane proteins
a. channel
b. transporter
c. receptor
d. cell identity marker
e. linker
f. enzyme
a. passage to allow specific substance pass through
b. binds a specific substance; changes shape and moves across membrane
c. cellular recognition site- binds to substance (lock and key)
d. allows cell to recognize other similar substances
e. anchor protein in cell
f. catalyst
Cell try to move NA ions from the cytoplasm to the outside of the cell, where the sodium concentration is 14 times greater than in the cytoplasm. This means sodium ions are moved out of cell by:
active transport
pinocytosis
engulfment of liquid particles by cells by “cell drinking”
Concentration gradients
moves from Hi to Low; increased by increased diffusion, temp, concentration, surface tension, etc)
Mediated transport
moves with help of transporter protein (downhill- automatic)
Passive transport
moves substance down their gradient with kinetic energy only
vesicular transport
move substances in small vesicles (bubbles)
Exocytosis
moving outside cell (ex. goblet cells)
Endocytosis
moving inside cell (ex. phagocyte, pinocyte)
Most lipids found in the human cell are
phospholipids
Protein synthesis takes place in the
ribosomes
fatty acids, phospholipids, and steroids are synthesized primarily in the
SER
an organelle that contains DNA, makes ATP and can replicate is the:
mitochondria
hairlike projections on a cell for moving the cell are
cilia
a red blood cell placed in distilled water would…
swell and burst
a plasma membrane (cell membrane) is
phospholipid bilayer surrounding the cell
in order for the flagella and cilia to move cells, what is necessary
use of energy in form of ATP
the process of copying the genetic blueprint of DNA onto a strand of mRNA is important in the process of …
protein synthesis
a typical human cell has how many chromosomes
46
this cell organelle directs all cell activities, reproduction,etc
nucleus
the RER and Golgo apparatus work together to
make and process proteins for use outside the cell
what is the model used for enzyme, neurotransmitter or hormone receptor specificity
lock and key
RER
synthesizes, processes and packages proteins for export
SER
has no attached ribosomes- synthesizes phospholipids, steroids, and fats
transcription
DNA sense strand is template for creation of RNA
translation
process where M, R, TRNA are used to form a specific protein
Mitosis
somatic cell division
meiosis
reproductive cell division (sperm and egg 2n->n)
Which event occurring in the life cycle of a cell most directly involves the replication of DNA
the cell replicates its chromosome
Events assiciated with normal cell dicision
- replication of each chromosome
- separation from centromeres
- movement of single stranded chromosomes to opposite ends of spindle
- nuclear membrane formation around each set on newly formed chromosomes
Normal mitotic cell division results in each daughter cell having..
the same number and kinds of chromosomes as the parent cell
Mitotic cell division
2n-n,n
during normal meiotic division of diploid cell, the change in chromosome number that occurs is represented as
2n>n
one primary sex cell undergoing the process of meiosis in a female typically results in the production of
1 egg and 3 polar bodies
the fact that offspring may have characteristics somewhat different from their parents is primarily due to
meiosis
compared to the number of chromosomes in normal human body cell, the number of chromosomes in a normal human sperm cell is
half as much
in human, cells undergoing a change from a diploid number of chromosomes to a monoploid number of chromosomes would normally be found in the
ovaries and testes
which statement best describes chromosomes that contain genes for the same characteristics
homologous
What would be the most likely result if the ribosomes in a cell stopped working?
synthesis of enzymes would stop
the function of the coded instructions contained in the DNA of body cells is to
direct the synthesis of proteins necessary for proper cell function
overexposure of animals to X-rays is dangerous becuase X-rays are know to damage DNA. A direct result of this damage is cells with
changes in the chromosome structure
Males have ___ pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of XY chromosomes
22
A change that alters the base sequence of an organisms DNA is
mutation
in all living cells, DNA controls cellular activies by
determining the order of amino acids in protein molecules
occasionally during meiosis, the members of a single homologous chromosome pair will fail to separate. A human egg produced by such a nondisjunction will have a chromosome number of __
24
what is the relationship between and organisms DNA and protein specificity
DNA determines the amino acid sequence of each protein
Cell Junction types
tight, adherens, desmosomes, hemidesmosomes, gap junctions
Tight Junctions
water tight seal between cells (GI and gall bladder)
Adherens
holds epithelial cells together
Desmosomes
resists cell separation and disruption
hemidesmosomes
connect cells to extracellular material – basement membrane
gap junctions
tiny space between plasma membranes of two cells
The free upper surface of an epithelial cell is known as the
apical surface
two components of epithelial tissue
basal lamina, reticular lamina
Epithelial tissue (fx)
covers surface, forms glands, lines hollow organs
Do epithelial cells have a good blood supply as well as good nerve supply
no
the portion of the basement membrane secreted from the epithelial cells is the…
basal lamina
Simple squamous epithelium lining blood vessels is known as….
endothelium
unicellular glands producing and secreting mucus
goblet cells
where is transitional epithelium found
urinary bladder
which type of epithelium would provide the greatest protection form mechanical injury
stratified squamous
Simple columnar epithelium
microvilli, lines GI tract
pseudostratified columnar epithelium
ciliated, lines respiratory tract
stratified squamous epithelium
skin, vagina, may be keratinized
transitional epithelium
telescopes, lines bladder
Blast cell
deposit tissues in growth, healing
clast cell
remove tissue in remodeling
cyte cells
mature, non-dividing cells
adipocytes
fat cells
mast cells
release histamine
cartilage found on bone ends in joints
hyaline
types of loose connective tissue
a. areolar
b. adipose
c. reticular
a. cell types= fibroblasts, plasma and few white blood cells
b. peripheral nuclei due to large fat storage
c. reticular- network of fibers and cells that produce framework of organ
types of dense connective tissue
a. regular
b. irregular
c. elastic
a. regular- collagen fibers in parallel bundles with fibroblasts between bundles of collagen fibers (forms tendons)
b. irregular- collagen fibers are interwoven (ex. white of eyeball, dermis of skin)
c. elastic- branching elastic fibers and fibroblasts can stretch and still return to original shape (ex. lung tissue, vocal chords, ligaments between vertebrae)
Tendons and ligaments are made of which type of connective tissue
dense regular
friction reduction and shock absorption are functions of what part of a long bone
articular cartilage
osteons are typical of the structure of…
dense compact bone
what gives bone flexibility and resilience
collagen fibers
smooth muscle
non-striated, in GI tract, lungs and arterioles
cardiac muscle
striated, branches, involuntary
skeletal muscle
striated, voluntary, straigh fibers
what is the purpose of tight junctions and intercalary disks of cardiac muscle
connects the cells electrically, allows for coordination of contraction, gives muscles issue additional strength
3 major cell types in blood- what is their fx
RBC- erythrocytes
WBC- leukocytes
platelets
fx- provides clotting, immune function, and carry O2 and CO2
spongy bone
sponge like with spaces and trabeculae
compact bone
solid, dense; basic unit of structure= osteon
3 types of cartilage:
a. hyaline
b. fibrocartilage
c. elastic
a. hyaline- blueish, reduces friction at joins as articular cartilage
b. fibrocartilage- many collagen fibers- causes rigidity and stiffness; strongest type. ex. intervertebral discs
c. elastic- fibers maintain shape after deformations (ex ear, nose)
Serous membranes
simple squamous cells overlying loose CT layer; lines body cavity that doesn’t open to outside
the membrane that lines the thoracic cavity is the
pleura
the appendix belongs to which abdominal quadrant
RLQ
the function of microvillus found on certain columnar epithelia is
to increase surface area for absorption
simple squamous epithelium allows for…
diffusion
a needle would pierce the epidermal layers of the forearm in which order?
Corneum, granulosum, spinosum, basale
langerhan cells
form bone marrow, provide immunity
merkel cell
in deepest layer, form touch receptor with sensory neuron
which muscles attached to the hair follicles cause goose bumps
arrector pili
melanocytes
spidery shaped cells in protecting from UV radiation
what is the function of the root hair plexus
allow the hair to assist in touch sensation
the ___ gland is a modified sudoriferoius gland that secretes wax
ceruminous
the dermis has two distinct layers
papillary region (20%)- composed of Loose CT and elastic fibers - reticular region- dense irregular CT
the reason the hypodermis (subcutaneous tissue) acts as a shock absorber is that:
the major part of its makeup is adipose, which serves as an effective shock absorber
the epidermis is responsible for protecting the body against invasion of bacteria and other foreign agents primarily because it is composed of:
4 different cell shapes found in five distinct layers, each cell shape with a special function
which layer of the epidermis is responsible for cell division and replacement
stratum basale
in addition to protection, the skin serves other functions
it activates vitamin D
nourishment to the cells in the epidermis is provided by
blood vessels in the dermal papillae
the function of keratin is to
make skin tough and waterproof
sebaceous glands
– sebum- combo of cholesterol, proteins, fats, and salts; keeps skin soft and pliable
sudoriferous glands
a. eccrine
b. apocrine
a. most areas of skin- regulates body temp w/ perspiration
b. apocrine- arm pit and pubic region secretions
cyanotic
skin and mucous membranes have an abnormal bluish tine; reflects a lack of O2 circulation
what does the skin excrete
salt, water, urea and ammonia
how does skin contribute to regulation of body temp
releasing perspiration and altering blood flow to dermis which adjusts how much heat will radiate
the function of the epiphyseal plate is to
allow means by which a bone can increase in length
open epiphyses mean that
a patient is still growing, and additional osteochondral bone growth may occur
tissues that hold joints together are known as___ and are made of ___
capsule;
ligaments, tendons, and periosteum
the medullary cavity contains
bone marrow
the shaft of a long bone is the
diaphysis
the function of osteoblasts is to
produce collagen and matrix for bone matrix
osteons are typical of the structure of
dense compact bone
the tiny channels connecting osteocytes with the central canal of an osteon are called
canaliculi
what gives a bone flexibility and resilience
collagen fibers
hydroxyapatite is the…
combination of calcium compounds in the bone matrix
the type of bone formation that makes flat bones is…
intramembranous bone formation
the cell responsible for breaking down bone during remodeling
osteoclasts
trabeculae are characteristic of
spongy bone
what affects bone growth
nutrition, hormones, exercise
which of the following defines a simple (closed) fracture
the bone doesn’t break through the skin
hemopoiesis refers to
production of red blood cells in the red bone marrow
which type of fracture is most likely to occur in immature bone
greenstick
Order of fracture healing
hematoma formation, formation of fibrocartilage callus, calcification and ossification, remodeling
in an intra-articular fracture what may result
destruction of joint surface, degeneration of joint leading to arthritis, pain and deformity
potts fracture
fracture of the fibular with injury of tibial articulation
colles fracture
fracture of radius in which distal fragment is displaced
comminuted fracture
bone is splintered, crushed into pieces
three types of muscle tissue
skeletal, cardiac, smooth
fx of muscles
produce body movement, stabilize body movement, regulate organ volume, movement of substances within body, produce heat
excitability
respond to chemical release
conductivity
ability to propagate electrical signals
contractility
shorten and generate force
extensibilty
stretch without damage
elasticity
return to original shape
epimysium
surrounds whole muscle
perimysium
surrounds bundles (fascicles)
endomysium
separates individual muscle cells
