Final Review Flashcards
(237 cards)
1
Q
Anatomy is the study
A
structure
2
Q
Physiology is the study of
A
funtion
3
Q
The sum of all chemical reactions that occur in the body is known as
A
Metabolism
4
Q
The change a cell undergoes to develop from an unspecialized one to a specialized one is called
A
differentiation
5
Q
What is a condition in which the body’s internal environment remains within certain physiological limits
A
homeostasis
6
Q
INTERstitial fluid is located?
A
between the cells in a tissue
7
Q
Homeostasis is regulated by the nervous system and the…?
A
endocrine system
8
Q
What are the three observational techniques?
A
Palpation (feel surface of body- pulse, temp)
Auscultation (listening)
Percussion (tap on body and listen to echo)
9
Q
Level of cellular organization from least to most complex
A
chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organsim
10
Q
ICF (ITRAcellular fluid)
A
located within the cells
11
Q
ECT (EXTRAcellular fluid)
A
outside the cells
12
Q
Components of a feedback system
A
receptor (monitors controlled condition)
control center (determines next action)
effector ( produces response)
13
Q
Negative Feedback Loop
A
decreases change (most systems in body)
14
Q
Positive Feedback Loop
A
increases change (ex. child birth)
15
Q
Sagittal Plane
A
Right and left sides
16
Q
Midsagittal
A
equal right and left halves
17
Q
Parasagittal
A
unequal right and left halves
18
Q
Frontal (Coronal) Plane
A
divides front and back
19
Q
Transverse (Cross-Sectional)
A
divides into upper and lower halves
20
Q
Dorsal Body Cavity
A
Cranial and Spinal cavities
21
Q
Ventral Body Cavity
A
Thoracic and Abdominopelvic cavities
22
Q
what structure divides the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities
A
diaphragm
23
Q
Mediastatinum contains all thoracic organs except
A
Lungs
- divides organs into two pleural
24
Q
Visceral Membranes
A
Cover organ
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Parietal Membranes
lines walls of cavity
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Lining of abdominal cavity
peritoneum
27
Four basic tissue types
epithelium, muscle, nervous, connective
28
Matter
- anything that occupies space
- weight is a factor of gravity
- mass of an object is constant, meaning it does not change
29
How many elements are found in the body?
| What are the 4 main elements in the body
26
| - carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
30
The smallest unity of matter
atom
31
Atomic number of an atom is the...
number of proton in the nucleus
32
An unstable or reactive atom will have...
an unfilled energy shell.
Stable: 2,8,18
Unstable: 2,8,1
33
Ions
Cations
Anion
- atoms that are charged
- Cations- positively charged
- Anions- negatively charged
34
3 subatomic particles
protons, neutrons, electrons
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Nucleus contains
protons and neutrons
36
Chemical bonds
hold together atoms in molecules and compounds
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Ionic Bond
Positively and negatively charged ions attract to form an ionic bond
38
Covalent Bond are atoms bonded by
sharing pairs of electrons
39
Polar Covalent Bonds are bonded by
unequal sharing of electrons (Ex. water)
40
Hydrogen Bonds
are polar covalent bonds between hydrogen and other atoms (ex. surface tension, boiling water, evaporation)
- are usually very weak
41
Anabolic reactions are
synthesis reactions- two or more atoms, ions, or molecules combine to form new and larger molecules (** usually endergonic)
42
In Exergonic reactions occurring in the body, energy is
released as bonds are broken and reformed
43
In Endergonic reactions
energy is absorbed
44
The energy needed to break bonds and begin a chemical reaction is?
activation energy
45
Catalysts...
- speed up reactions by lowering activation energy
- orient the colliding particles properly so that they touch at the spots that make the reaction happen
- are unchanged and can be used repeatedly to speed up similar chemical reactions
46
Potential Energy
Stored energy
47
Kinetic Energy
energy of motion
48
Decomposition Reaction is
catabolism- larger molecules are split into smaller atoms, ion, or molecules (*usually exergonic)
49
Most abundant inorganic substance in the human body
water
50
Bases
dissociate into OH and have a high pH
51
Acids
dissociates into H and have a low pH
52
dissociation
breaking down into ions when dissolved into H20
53
Solutions
contain solutes dissolved in a solvent
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colloid mixture
are large, therefore doesn't appear clear
55
suspension mixture
settle out because of size
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Water
is the medium of nearly all chemical reactions
-is a polar molecule because there is a partial negative charge near oxygen and a partial positive charge near the hydrogen atoms
57
Dehydration synthesis
when carbs are bonded together to form larger structures and results in water
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hydrolysis
reaction breaking down water
59
where is glycogen stored
in liver and muscle tissue
60
monosaccaride
simple sugars
| ex glucose, fructose, galactose
61
disaccharide-
formed by combining 2 monos via dehydration sysnthesis
| ex. sucrose, maltose, lactose
62
What elements do Carbs, fats, and proteins contain
carbs- CHO
fats- CHO
proteins- CHON
63
triglycerides
3 fatty acides and 1 glycerol
64
What is the function of ATP
to store energy
65
All organic compounds contain the elements
carbon and hydrogen
66
which organic compounds are the main source of energy for ATP production
Carbohydrates
67
Carbohydrates are stored in the liver and muscles in the form of
glycogen
68
A saturated fat is saturated with
hydrogen
69
basic building blocks of proteins are
amino acids
70
phospholipids
polar head + 2 nonpolar fatty acid tails
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hydophobic
lipid/non polar
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hydrophillic
phosphate/polar
73
amphipathic
contains both hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties
74
how many amino acids are there
20
75
peptide bonds
formed by the union of 2 amino acids
76
Shape of a protein influences its ability to form bonds
a. primary
b. secondary
c. tertiary
d. quaternary
a. primary- unique sequence of A.A (ex. ribosomes)
b. secondary- alphahelix or plated sheet folding (ex. RER)
c. Tertiary- 3d shape of polypeptide change (ex. golgi complex)
d. quaternary- multiple polypeptide chains
77
Denaturation
hostile environments such as heat, acid, or salts will change proteins 3D shape and destroy its ability to function
78
Enzymes
protein molecules that act as a catalyst
79
A nucleotide consists of
nitrogenous base
five carbon sugar (pentose)
phosphate
80
DNA codes for primary protein structures with ...
3 base pair sections called codons
81
Errors in DNA base pair sequences can result in
mutations
nonfunctional enzymes
cancer
82
Genes:
are sections of DNA
| Control the synthesis of a specific protein
83
Proteins (function)
```
form structural framework of the body
function as hormones
shortens muscles for contraction
```
84
RNA
uses ribose sugar
uracil replaces thymine
is a single helix structure instead of double helix
carries genetic message out of nucleus to ribosome
3 types: messenger, ribosomal, and transfer
85
Organelles that contain enzymes that destroy materials engulfed by a cell are
lysosomes
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3 structural areas of a cell
plasma membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm
87
cytology
study of cell structure
88
Plasma membrane
barrier that surrounds the cytoplasm of cell
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what are the three lipids found within the plasma membrane
phospholipid, glycolipid, cholesterol
90
Endoplasmic reticulum is either smooth or rough depending on the presence of
ribosomes
91
cells that are active i the exocytosis would likely contain many..
mitochondria
92
which form of transport utilizes ATP
active transport
93
transport proteins within the cell membrane are required to transport a substance across a membrane via
facilitated diffusion
94
cytoplasm is mostly:
water
95
integral proteins
extend into or completely across a membrane
| if they extend completely across= transmembrane
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peripheral proteins
attached to either inner or outer surface of cell membrane and are easily removed
97
Functions of membrane proteins
a. channel
b. transporter
c. receptor
d. cell identity marker
e. linker
f. enzyme
a. passage to allow specific substance pass through
b. binds a specific substance; changes shape and moves across membrane
c. cellular recognition site- binds to substance (lock and key)
d. allows cell to recognize other similar substances
e. anchor protein in cell
f. catalyst
98
Cell try to move NA ions from the cytoplasm to the outside of the cell, where the sodium concentration is 14 times greater than in the cytoplasm. This means sodium ions are moved out of cell by:
active transport
99
pinocytosis
engulfment of liquid particles by cells by "cell drinking"
100
Concentration gradients
moves from Hi to Low; increased by increased diffusion, temp, concentration, surface tension, etc)
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Mediated transport
moves with help of transporter protein (downhill- automatic)
102
Passive transport
moves substance down their gradient with kinetic energy only
103
vesicular transport
move substances in small vesicles (bubbles)
104
Exocytosis
moving outside cell (ex. goblet cells)
105
Endocytosis
moving inside cell (ex. phagocyte, pinocyte)
106
Most lipids found in the human cell are
phospholipids
107
Protein synthesis takes place in the
ribosomes
108
fatty acids, phospholipids, and steroids are synthesized primarily in the
SER
109
an organelle that contains DNA, makes ATP and can replicate is the:
mitochondria
110
hairlike projections on a cell for moving the cell are
cilia
111
a red blood cell placed in distilled water would...
swell and burst
112
a plasma membrane (cell membrane) is
phospholipid bilayer surrounding the cell
113
in order for the flagella and cilia to move cells, what is necessary
use of energy in form of ATP
114
the process of copying the genetic blueprint of DNA onto a strand of mRNA is important in the process of ...
protein synthesis
115
a typical human cell has how many chromosomes
46
116
this cell organelle directs all cell activities, reproduction,etc
nucleus
117
the RER and Golgo apparatus work together to
make and process proteins for use outside the cell
118
what is the model used for enzyme, neurotransmitter or hormone receptor specificity
lock and key
119
RER
synthesizes, processes and packages proteins for export
120
SER
has no attached ribosomes- synthesizes phospholipids, steroids, and fats
121
transcription
DNA sense strand is template for creation of RNA
122
translation
process where M, R, TRNA are used to form a specific protein
123
Mitosis
somatic cell division
124
meiosis
reproductive cell division (sperm and egg 2n->n)
125
Which event occurring in the life cycle of a cell most directly involves the replication of DNA
the cell replicates its chromosome
126
Events assiciated with normal cell dicision
- replication of each chromosome
- separation from centromeres
- movement of single stranded chromosomes to opposite ends of spindle
- nuclear membrane formation around each set on newly formed chromosomes
127
Normal mitotic cell division results in each daughter cell having..
the same number and kinds of chromosomes as the parent cell
128
Mitotic cell division
2n-n,n
129
during normal meiotic division of diploid cell, the change in chromosome number that occurs is represented as
2n>n
130
one primary sex cell undergoing the process of meiosis in a female typically results in the production of
1 egg and 3 polar bodies
131
the fact that offspring may have characteristics somewhat different from their parents is primarily due to
meiosis
132
compared to the number of chromosomes in normal human body cell, the number of chromosomes in a normal human sperm cell is
half as much
133
in human, cells undergoing a change from a diploid number of chromosomes to a monoploid number of chromosomes would normally be found in the
ovaries and testes
134
which statement best describes chromosomes that contain genes for the same characteristics
homologous
135
What would be the most likely result if the ribosomes in a cell stopped working?
synthesis of enzymes would stop
136
the function of the coded instructions contained in the DNA of body cells is to
direct the synthesis of proteins necessary for proper cell function
137
overexposure of animals to X-rays is dangerous becuase X-rays are know to damage DNA. A direct result of this damage is cells with
changes in the chromosome structure
138
Males have ___ pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of XY chromosomes
22
139
A change that alters the base sequence of an organisms DNA is
mutation
140
in all living cells, DNA controls cellular activies by
determining the order of amino acids in protein molecules
141
occasionally during meiosis, the members of a single homologous chromosome pair will fail to separate. A human egg produced by such a nondisjunction will have a chromosome number of __
24
142
what is the relationship between and organisms DNA and protein specificity
DNA determines the amino acid sequence of each protein
143
Cell Junction types
tight, adherens, desmosomes, hemidesmosomes, gap junctions
144
Tight Junctions
water tight seal between cells (GI and gall bladder)
145
Adherens
holds epithelial cells together
146
Desmosomes
resists cell separation and disruption
147
hemidesmosomes
connect cells to extracellular material -- basement membrane
148
gap junctions
tiny space between plasma membranes of two cells
149
The free upper surface of an epithelial cell is known as the
apical surface
150
two components of epithelial tissue
basal lamina, reticular lamina
151
Epithelial tissue (fx)
covers surface, forms glands, lines hollow organs
152
Do epithelial cells have a good blood supply as well as good nerve supply
no
153
the portion of the basement membrane secreted from the epithelial cells is the...
basal lamina
154
Simple squamous epithelium lining blood vessels is known as....
endothelium
155
unicellular glands producing and secreting mucus
goblet cells
156
where is transitional epithelium found
urinary bladder
157
which type of epithelium would provide the greatest protection form mechanical injury
stratified squamous
158
Simple columnar epithelium
microvilli, lines GI tract
159
pseudostratified columnar epithelium
ciliated, lines respiratory tract
160
stratified squamous epithelium
skin, vagina, may be keratinized
161
transitional epithelium
telescopes, lines bladder
162
Blast cell
deposit tissues in growth, healing
163
clast cell
remove tissue in remodeling
164
cyte cells
mature, non-dividing cells
165
adipocytes
fat cells
166
mast cells
release histamine
167
cartilage found on bone ends in joints
hyaline
168
types of loose connective tissue
a. areolar
b. adipose
c. reticular
a. cell types= fibroblasts, plasma and few white blood cells
b. peripheral nuclei due to large fat storage
c. reticular- network of fibers and cells that produce framework of organ
169
types of dense connective tissue
a. regular
b. irregular
c. elastic
a. regular- collagen fibers in parallel bundles with fibroblasts between bundles of collagen fibers (forms tendons)
b. irregular- collagen fibers are interwoven (ex. white of eyeball, dermis of skin)
c. elastic- branching elastic fibers and fibroblasts can stretch and still return to original shape (ex. lung tissue, vocal chords, ligaments between vertebrae)
170
Tendons and ligaments are made of which type of connective tissue
dense regular
171
friction reduction and shock absorption are functions of what part of a long bone
articular cartilage
172
osteons are typical of the structure of...
dense compact bone
173
what gives bone flexibility and resilience
collagen fibers
174
smooth muscle
non-striated, in GI tract, lungs and arterioles
175
cardiac muscle
striated, branches, involuntary
176
skeletal muscle
striated, voluntary, straigh fibers
177
what is the purpose of tight junctions and intercalary disks of cardiac muscle
connects the cells electrically, allows for coordination of contraction, gives muscles issue additional strength
178
3 major cell types in blood- what is their fx
RBC- erythrocytes
WBC- leukocytes
platelets
fx- provides clotting, immune function, and carry O2 and CO2
179
spongy bone
sponge like with spaces and trabeculae
180
compact bone
solid, dense; basic unit of structure= osteon
181
3 types of cartilage:
a. hyaline
b. fibrocartilage
c. elastic
a. hyaline- blueish, reduces friction at joins as articular cartilage
b. fibrocartilage- many collagen fibers- causes rigidity and stiffness; strongest type. ex. intervertebral discs
c. elastic- fibers maintain shape after deformations (ex ear, nose)
182
Serous membranes
simple squamous cells overlying loose CT layer; lines body cavity that doesn't open to outside
183
the membrane that lines the thoracic cavity is the
pleura
184
the appendix belongs to which abdominal quadrant
RLQ
185
the function of microvillus found on certain columnar epithelia is
to increase surface area for absorption
186
simple squamous epithelium allows for...
diffusion
187
a needle would pierce the epidermal layers of the forearm in which order?
Corneum, granulosum, spinosum, basale
188
langerhan cells
form bone marrow, provide immunity
189
merkel cell
in deepest layer, form touch receptor with sensory neuron
190
which muscles attached to the hair follicles cause goose bumps
arrector pili
191
melanocytes
spidery shaped cells in protecting from UV radiation
192
what is the function of the root hair plexus
allow the hair to assist in touch sensation
193
the ___ gland is a modified sudoriferoius gland that secretes wax
ceruminous
194
the dermis has two distinct layers
```
papillary region (20%)- composed of Loose CT and elastic fibers
- reticular region- dense irregular CT
```
195
the reason the hypodermis (subcutaneous tissue) acts as a shock absorber is that:
the major part of its makeup is adipose, which serves as an effective shock absorber
196
the epidermis is responsible for protecting the body against invasion of bacteria and other foreign agents primarily because it is composed of:
4 different cell shapes found in five distinct layers, each cell shape with a special function
197
which layer of the epidermis is responsible for cell division and replacement
stratum basale
198
in addition to protection, the skin serves other functions
it activates vitamin D
199
nourishment to the cells in the epidermis is provided by
blood vessels in the dermal papillae
200
the function of keratin is to
make skin tough and waterproof
201
sebaceous glands
-- sebum- combo of cholesterol, proteins, fats, and salts; keeps skin soft and pliable
202
sudoriferous glands
a. eccrine
b. apocrine
a. most areas of skin- regulates body temp w/ perspiration
| b. apocrine- arm pit and pubic region secretions
203
cyanotic
skin and mucous membranes have an abnormal bluish tine; reflects a lack of O2 circulation
204
what does the skin excrete
salt, water, urea and ammonia
205
how does skin contribute to regulation of body temp
releasing perspiration and altering blood flow to dermis which adjusts how much heat will radiate
206
the function of the epiphyseal plate is to
allow means by which a bone can increase in length
207
open epiphyses mean that
a patient is still growing, and additional osteochondral bone growth may occur
208
tissues that hold joints together are known as___ and are made of ___
capsule;
| ligaments, tendons, and periosteum
209
the medullary cavity contains
bone marrow
210
the shaft of a long bone is the
diaphysis
211
the function of osteoblasts is to
produce collagen and matrix for bone matrix
212
osteons are typical of the structure of
dense compact bone
213
the tiny channels connecting osteocytes with the central canal of an osteon are called
canaliculi
214
what gives a bone flexibility and resilience
collagen fibers
215
hydroxyapatite is the...
combination of calcium compounds in the bone matrix
216
the type of bone formation that makes flat bones is...
intramembranous bone formation
217
the cell responsible for breaking down bone during remodeling
osteoclasts
218
trabeculae are characteristic of
spongy bone
219
what affects bone growth
nutrition, hormones, exercise
220
which of the following defines a simple (closed) fracture
the bone doesn't break through the skin
221
hemopoiesis refers to
production of red blood cells in the red bone marrow
222
which type of fracture is most likely to occur in immature bone
greenstick
223
Order of fracture healing
hematoma formation, formation of fibrocartilage callus, calcification and ossification, remodeling
224
in an intra-articular fracture what may result
destruction of joint surface, degeneration of joint leading to arthritis, pain and deformity
225
potts fracture
fracture of the fibular with injury of tibial articulation
226
colles fracture
fracture of radius in which distal fragment is displaced
227
comminuted fracture
bone is splintered, crushed into pieces
228
three types of muscle tissue
skeletal, cardiac, smooth
229
fx of muscles
produce body movement, stabilize body movement, regulate organ volume, movement of substances within body, produce heat
230
excitability
respond to chemical release
231
conductivity
ability to propagate electrical signals
232
contractility
shorten and generate force
233
extensibilty
stretch without damage
234
elasticity
return to original shape
235
epimysium
surrounds whole muscle
236
perimysium
surrounds bundles (fascicles)
237
endomysium
separates individual muscle cells
