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Final Review Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Traits

A

specific characteristic of an individual

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2
Q

Hybrids

A

offspring of crosses between parents with different traits

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3
Q

Fertilization

A

process in sexual reproduction in which male and female reproductive cells join to form a new cell

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4
Q

Genes

A

sequence of DNA that codes for a protein and thus determines a trait; factor that is passed from parent to offspring

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5
Q

Alleles

A

one of a number of different forms of a gene

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6
Q

Genotype

A

genetic makeup of an organism

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7
Q

Phenotype

A

physical characteristics of an organism

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8
Q

Parental Crosses

A

The first cross between the “parent” plants with different traits

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9
Q

F1 generation

A

The result of the first (parent) cross

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10
Q

F2 generation

A

The result of letting the F1 generation self pollinate

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11
Q

Principle of dominance

A

The principle states alleles may be dominant or recessive. An organism with at least one dominant allele with exhibit that form of the trait. An organism with a recessive allele will exhibit the recessive trait only if the dominant allele is not present.

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12
Q

Principle of segregation

A

separation of alleles during gamete formation; causes offspring to have different traits

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13
Q

Probability

A

is the likelihood a certain event may occur.

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14
Q

Independent assortment

A

Genes for different traits can segregate independently during the
formation of gametes.

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15
Q

Incomplete dominance

A

Some alleles are neither dominant or recessive. This inheritance pattern shows exceptions to Mendel’s principles where alleles are not completely dominant over the other.

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16
Q

Co-dominance

A

In codominance two alleles are fully expressed at the same time in a heterozygote. A good example of codominance is that of the roan coat as seen in some cattle and horses.

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17
Q

Multiple alleles

A

A gene which is governed by multiple alleles, in these cases multiple alleles exist in the population of that species.
1.) An example of this common occurrence in nature is the multiple colors which govern wild hair & human blood typing.

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18
Q

Polygenic traits

A

Traits controlled by a “multitude of genes” working together commanding the expression or Phenotypes of individuals.
1.) Many traits in complex mammals are governed by a multitude of traits.
• Skin color is one of many Phenotypes controlled by a multitude of genes.

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19
Q

Phases of Meiosis

A
  • Prophase(1)
  • Metaphase(1)
  • Anaphase(1)
  • Telophase(1)
  • Cytokinesis(1)
  • Prophase(2)
  • Metaphase(2)
  • Anaphase(2)
  • Telophase(2)
  • Cytokinesis(2)
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20
Q

What occurs during Prophase(1)

A
  • Chromosomes have already duplicated into two homologous sets of chromosomes.
  • The duplicated homologous pair.
  • Crossover occurs
  • Nuclear envelope disintegrates allowing the spindle
  • Longest lasting phase in meiosis typically containing 90% of the time for the two divisions.
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21
Q

What occurs during Metaphase(1)

A

• The centrioles separate to opposite poles of a cell.
• The pairs of homologous chromosomes become arranged on a plane
equidistant from the poles called the metaphase plate.
• Spindle fibers from one pole of the cell attach to one chromosome of each pair & the spindle fiber of the opposite pole attach to the other homologous chromosome.

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22
Q

What occurs during Anaphase(1)

A

• Anaphase (I) begins when the two chromosome of two bivalent tetrad separate & star migrating to opposite poles.
• Notice: Sister chromatids remain attached at the centromere as they migrate. Key difference between meiosis & mitosis.

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23
Q

What occurs during Telophase(1)

A

a.) The homologous chromosome pairs complete their migration to the two poles as a result of the action of the spindle. Now a haploid set of chromosomes is at each pole, with each chromosome still having two chromatids.
b.) A nuclear envelope reforms around each chromosome set, the spindle disappears, and cytokinesis follows. In animal cells, cytokinesis involves the formation of a cleavage furrow, resulting in the pinching of the cell into two cells. After cytokinesis, each of the two progeny cells has a nucleus with a haploid set of replicated chromosomes.

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24
Q

What occurs during Prophase(2)

A

a.) While chromosome duplication took place prior to meiosis I, no
new chromosome replication occurs before meiosis II.
b.) The centrioles duplicate. This occurs by separation of the two
members of the pair, and then the formation of a daughter centriole perpendicular to each original centriole. The two pairs of centrioles separate into two centrosomes.
c.) The nuclear envelope breaks down, and the spindle apparatus forms.

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25
Q

What occurs during Metaphase(2)

A

a.) Single chromosomes align on the metaphase
plate, much as chromosomes do in mitosis. This
is in contrast to metaphase I, in which homologous pairs of chromosomes align on the metaphase plate.
b.) For each chromosome, the kinetochores of the sister chromatids face the opposite poles, and each is attached to a kinetochore microtubule coming from that pole.

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26
Q

What occurs during Anaphase(2)

A

a.) The centromeres separate, and the two chromatids of
each chromosome move to opposite poles on the spindle. The separated chromatids are now called chromosomes in their own right.

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27
Q

What occurs during Telophase(2)

A

a.) A nuclear envelope forms around each set of
chromosomes.
b.) Cytokinesis takes place, producing four daughter cells
(gametes, in animals), each with a haploid set of chromosomes.

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28
Q

Homologous chromosomes

A

In diploid (2n) organisms, the genome is composed of homologous chromosomes. One chromosome of each homologous pair comes from the mother (called a maternal chromosome) and one comes from the father (paternal chromosome).
• Diploid: An organisms that contains both sets of homologous chromosomes, “ two sets “.
• Haploid: “ One set “ of the homologous set of chromosomes.

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29
Q

Cross over

A

The physical exchange of chromosome parts. Cross over leads to genetic recombination.

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30
Q

Frederick Griffith Experiment

A

a.) In 1928, the British scientist Fredrick Griffith was trying to figure out the mechanism for a deadly Disease called pneumonia. 1.) Griffith had isolated two
very similar types of bacteria from mice: one the disease causing ( S - Strain ) where as the ( R - strain ) a harmless strain of the same species of bacteria.
2.) Griffith’s Experiment:
(1st) Griffiths injected mice with the virulent strain causing them to all expire.
( 2nd ) Griffith injected mice with the harmless ( R-strain ), subsequently all lived.
( 3rd ) Griffith heat treated, ( boiled ), the virulent ( S-strain ) & injected into a new colony
of rats & waited for them to die. They survived because the bacteria where lysed &
disease could not commence.
( 4th ) Griffith mixed the heat treated ( S-strain ) with the live ( R-strain ) & injected into a
new group of rats.
- The injected rats died to Griffith’s surprise. This result signaled to Griffith that the (R-
strain) had transformed into the virulent ( S-strain ).
- Griffith’s surmised that something inside the virulent strain when lysed was picked up
by the harmless strain & caused them to change.

31
Q

Transformation

A

The process of transformation is when one type of bacteria’s genome is changed & into another by up-taking ( genetic material ) from its environment.

32
Q

Hershey and Chase Experiment

A

Hershey & Chase studied bacteria phages that was
composed of a DNA core & a Protein coat.
1.) They wanted to determine which part of the virus, the protein coat or the DNA core
entered the infected bacteria.
The pair grew viruses in cultures containing radioactive isotopes of Phosphorus-32 & Sulfur-35. This was a clever strategy b/c protein contain no phosphorus & DNA contain no Sulfur.
These radioactive isotopes where used as marker to determine which molecule actually entered the bacteria.
- If they found radioactive Sulfur in the bacteria, it would mean virus Protein coat was injected into the bacteria.
- If they found radioactive Phosphorus in the bacteria, it would mean Virus DNA was injected into the bacteria.

33
Q

Oswald Avery Experiment

A

Duplicated Griffith’s experiment but isolate Lipase, protease, and Nuclease to see which caused the heat-killed s-strain to transform

34
Q

The Role of DNA is…

A

a.) Storing information: The foremost job of DNA is to store the information to all
the proteins that make up an organism.
b.) Copying information: Before a cell divides, it must make a complete copy of
it’s genome.
c.) Transmitting Information: Genes transmitted from on generation to next & expressed is a complicated & elegant process which begins in fertilization.

35
Q

Erwin Chargaff

A

Created Chargaff’s rule which states the amount of base
pairs between ( Thymine & Adenine ) & ( Cytosine & Guanine ) must be nearly equal.

36
Q

Structure of DNA

A

DNA is a Nucleic acid made up of nucleotides joined into two strands
or chains by covalent bonds.

37
Q

Parts of a nucleotide

A

a. ) There are four different nitrogenous bases which make up the monomer Nucleotide in DNA.
1. ) Cystine, Guanine, Thymine, & Adenine are the four bases of DNA.

38
Q

Rosalind Elsie Franklin

A

Made critical contributions to the understanding of the fine molecular structures of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), RNA, viruses, coal, and graphite.
1.) Franklin devoted her life to understanding
the crystalline structure of compounds via a
new technology called crystallography via X-Ray diffraction.

39
Q

Maurice Wilkins

A

He is best known for his work at on the structure of DNA. This includes producing the first clear X-ray images of DNA in 1950–51.

40
Q

Watson & Crick

A

Where given credit for discovering the molecular structure of DNA.
1.) Watson & Crick have been accused of unethically removing Rosalind Franklins work to devise the
structure of DNA.

41
Q

Process of DNA replication

A

The Replication Process: Before a cell divides, it duplicates its DNA in a copying process called Replication.
1.) This process, which occurs during
interphase of the cell cycle, ensures that each resulting cell has the same complete set of DNA molecule.
The two strands of the DNA helix have to be separated, or “unzipped”, allowing two replication forks to form. This process is completed by an enzyme called Helicase.
These two open “forks” have to be kept open by a protein called DNA Binding Protein.
Once the double helix is opened & stable, a large “Quaternary structure” structured protein called DNA Polymerase begins to add the complimentary bases to both strands creating two independent identical copies.

42
Q

Basic Differences between Eukaryotes & Prokaryote Replication.

A

1.) Replication in most prokaryotic cells starts from a single point & proceeds in two different directions until the entire chromosome is copied.
2.) In Eukaryotic cells, replication may begin at dozens or even hundreds of places on the DNA molecule, proceeding in both directions until each chromosomes is completely copied.

43
Q

Gregory Mendel

A

Austrian born monk/teacher who devoted time to understanding the patterns of heredity in simple pea plants.
1.) Experiments performed in his garden unlocked the simplest of genetic rules governing the expression of genes.

44
Q

The role of RNA

A

a.) Genes contain coded DNA instructions that tell cells how to build proteins. The first step in decoding these genetic instructions is to copy part of the base sequence from DNA to RNA?
b.) RNA then uses these instructions to direct the production of protein, which determine the organism characteristics or “ Flesh & blood “.

45
Q

Differences between DNA and RNA

A
  1. ) The sugar in RNA is ribose instead of deoxyribose.
    2.) RNA is generally single-stranded & not double stranded.
  2. ) RNA contains Uracil in place of Thymine.
    4.) mRNA is located in the cytoplasm of the cell while DNA
    is located in the nucleus.
46
Q

Functions of RNA

A

Messenger RNA
Ribosomal RNA
Transfer RNA

47
Q

What is messenger RNA

A

This is the single stranded copy of RNA that carries the instructions from the parent copy DNA.

48
Q

What is ribosomal RNA

A

Large multiple protein structure along with RNA molecule which resembles a copy machine to read mRNA & produce Protein.

49
Q

Transfer RNA

A

tRNA molecules are the molecule consisting RNA that contain the essential amino acids to translate the code.

50
Q

Charles Darwin’s contribution for science

A

Darwin developed a scientific theory of biological evolution that explains how modern organisms evolve over long periods
of time through descent from common ancestors.
1.) HMS Beagle, launched in 1820. She was an unremarkable 10-gun brig, often called a ‘coffin brig’ because they had a reputation for sinking.

51
Q

Non vascular plants

A

Are plants without a vascular system (xylem and phloem). Although non-vascular plants lack these particular tissues, many possess simpler tissues that are specialized for internal transport of water.

52
Q

Bryophytes

A

Bryophytes consist of Mosses, Liverworts, & Hornworts.

53
Q

Algae

A

Especially the green algae.

54
Q

Vascular plants

A

Vascular plants, also known as tracheophytes form a large group of plants that are defined as those land plants that have lignified tissues (the xylem) for conducting water and minerals throughout the plant.

55
Q

Seedless vascular plants

A

Consist of club mosses, horsetails, & ferns.

56
Q

Seed bearing vascular plants

A

Consist of Gymnosperms & Angiosperms

57
Q

Bryophyte life cycle

A

In bryophytes, the gametophyte is the dominant, recognizable
stage of the life cycle. The gametophyte is also the stage that carries out most of the plant’s photosynthesis (refer to picture in scull’s notes)

58
Q

Phloem

A

Carries nutrients

59
Q

Xylem

A

Carries water

60
Q

Lignin

A

Lignin is a constituent of the cell walls of almost all dry land plant
cell walls. It is the second most abundant natural polymer in the world, surpassed only by cellulose. Of the polymers found in plant cell walls, lignin is the only one that is not composed of carbohydrate (sugar) monomers

61
Q

Specialized tissue in plants

A

• Roots: Roots anchor plants in the ground, holding soil in place and preventing erosion. Root systems often work with soil bacteria and fungi in mutualistic relationships that help the roots absorb water and dissolved nutrients
• Stems: Plant stems provide a support system for the plant body, a transport system that carries nutrients, and a defensive system that protects the plant against predators and disease.
• Leaves: Are the plant’s main photosynthetic organs

62
Q

Dermal tissue

A

Covers a plant almost like skin covers you.
1.) Dermal Tissue Dermal tissue in young plants
consists of a single layer of cells called the epidermis.
• Dermal tissue is the protective outer covering of a plant.

63
Q

Vascular tissue

A

Xylem and phloem

64
Q

Sieve tube elements

A

The main phloem cells, are arranged end to end forming sieve tubes

65
Q

Companion cells

A

Companion cells keep their nuclei and other organelles through their lifetime. Companion cells support the phloem cells and aid in the movement of substances in and out of the phloem

66
Q

Ground tissue

A

• Parenchyma: Parenchyma are the most abundant plant cells which have a thin cell wall and a large central vacuole surrounded by a thin layer of cytoplasm.
• Collenchyma cells have strong, flexible cell walls that help support plant organs.
• Sclerenchyma cells have extremely thick, rigid cell walls that make ground tissue such as seed
coats tough and strong.

67
Q

Meristems

A

Regions of unspecialized cells in which mitosis produces new cells that are ready for differentiation. Apical Meristems because the tip of a stem or root is know as it’s apex, meristems in these rapidly growing regions are called apical meristems.
- Gradually they develop into mature cells with specialized structures and functions.

68
Q

Types of roots

A

Taproot and fibrous root

69
Q

Root hairs

A

These hairs penetrate the spaces between soil particles and produce a large surface area that allows water and minerals to enter.

70
Q

Endodermis

A

Completely encloses the vascular cylinder.
- Plays a vital role in transferring water & minerals into the vascular region

71
Q

Cortex

A

Water and minerals move through the cortex from the epidermis
toward the center of the root.

72
Q

Makeup of a leaf

A

Epidermis, spongy parenchyma, palisade parenchyma, stomata, guard cells (refer to picture on study guide)

73
Q

Transpiration

A

Transpiration is the loss of water through leaves.

74
Q

Guard cells

A

Are highly specialized cells that surround the stomata and control their opening and closing.

Biology (3 decks)

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