Final Review Flashcards
Superstition
“7 years bad luck for a broken mirror”
Intuition
having that “gut” feeling
Authority
Something accepted solely on the basis of the credibility of source
Tenacity
believing that something is real because you hear it repeatedly
Rationalism
All humans are mortal. I am human. Therefore, I am mortal
Empiricism
“I can experience everything I believe” relies on the 5 sense
What is the relationship between Empiricism and Rationalism?
Gaining knowledge via science involves a merger of rationalism and empiricism. Scientists collect data (make empirical observations) and test hypotheses with these data (assess them using rationalism).
Determinism
our event is preceded by other events
Order
the idea that there is a sequential pattern of events
Discoverability
there isn’t anything that we can never know.
Systematic Empiricism
making a way to measure otherwise qualitative data
objectivity
reliability validity
publicly verifiable
publishing research allows for other scientists to read, expound, and replicate the research.
Empirically solvable
must have a falsifiable hypothesis (it must be stated in a way that it can be proven wrong) For example: null and alternative hypothesis
Parsimony
if we have two explanations that are equal, then we accept the simpler explanation
Self-correcting
Researchers carefully replicate findings before committing their lab to future research. Research but be constantly replicated to be accepted as scientifically proven.
Control
unknown
Scientific Method
- Ask a question 2.Background Research
- Construct a hypothesis
- Test your hypothesis by doing an experiment
- Analyze your data and draw a conclusion
- Communicate your results
Basic
The study of psychological issues to seek knowledge for its own sake
Applied
the study of psychological issues that have practical significance and potential solutions
Descriptive
Goals of science- methods of science
carefully observing behavior in order to describe it, Observational- making observations of human or animal behavior, Case study- an in-depth study of one or more individuals, survey- questioning individuals on a topic and then describing their responses, Naturalistic observation- observing the behavior of humans or animals in their natural habitat, Laboratory observation- observing the behavior of humans or animals in a more contrived and controlled situation, usually the laboratory.
Predictive (relational) (goals of science- methods of science)
identifying the factors that indicate when an event or events occur. everything is a dependent variable (researcher does not manipulate the IV), Correlational- a method that assess the degree of relationship between two variables, quasi-experimental- research that compares naturally occurring groups of individuals; the variable of interest cannot be manipulated.
Explanatory (goals of science- methods of science)
identifying the causes that determine when and why a behavior occurs, can only be explanatory if it’s an experiment, there has to be random assignment and control of extraneous variables
Variable
an event or behavior that has at least two values
Independent variable
what the researcher manipulates
Dependent variable
what the researcher observes
Extraneous variable
Undesirable variables that influence the relationship between variables that an experimenter is examining
Participant variable
unknown
pseudoscience
claims that appear to be scientific but that actually violate the criteria of science
Nazi atrocities
(Ethical violation) Nuremberg code (1948) says that there are things that are unethical to do to the enemy even in times of war
Tuskegee study
Black men in Tuskegee, Alabama were told that they were being treated for syphilis but were not despite the fact that an effective treatment was known
Milgram study
participants were placed under extreme psychological stress and learned things about themselves that they would have preferred not to know
Zimbardo study
“prison study”
Deidrick stapel
fabricated results in his research
Principle A ( general principles of APA)
Beneficence and nonmaleficence psychologists seek to safeguard the welfare and rights of those with whom they interact professionally and other affected persons
Principle B
Fidelity and responsibility roles- professional conduct, adaptable methods, responsibility - self and colleagues, public communication one must publish his or her research
Principle C
Integrity honesty, fairness, and respectfulness prudent use of deception
Principle D
Justice availability of benefits of research and self competence
Principle E
Respect for people’s rights and dignity privacy, confidentiality, self-determination, awareness of differences
Ten Ethical standard
- Resolving ethical issues
- competence
- Human relations
- Privacy and confidentiality
- Advertising and other public statements
- Record keeping and fees
- Education and training
- Research and publication
- Assessment
- Therapy
what are two important safeguards as far as ethics are concerned?
- Informed consent form
2. Institutional review board
The Hawthorne effect
participants are trying to figure out what the researcher is up to and do what they want. (the effect of participant’s awareness of being observed by the researcher)
Internal validity
the degree of confidence that the IV have caused the DV
External validity
extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people
Construct validity
did the instructions create what the researcher intended them to create
Statistical validity
the degree to which conclusions about the relationship among variables based on the data are correct or ‘reasonable’.
Threat to internal validity- Nonequivalent control groups-
problems in subject selection or assignment may lead to important difference between the subjects assigned to the experimental and control groups : solution- use random sampling and random assignment of subjects
Threat to internal validity- History
changes in the dependent variable may be due to outside events that take place during the course of study: solution- use an equivalent control group
Threat to internal validity-Maturation
changes in the dependent variable may be due to subjects maturing during the course of the study: solution- use an equivalent control group
Threat to internal validity Testing
changes in the dependent variable maybe due to participants being tested repeatedly and getting either better or worse because of these repeated testings: solution- use an equivalent control group
Threat to internal validity
Regression to the mean
subjects who are selected for a study because they are extreme on some variable may regress towards the mean and be less extreme at a later testing: solution- use an equivalent group of subjects with extreme scores
Threat to internal validity
mortality or attrition
differential attrition or dropout in the experimental and control groups may lead to inequality between the groups: solution-monitor for differential loss of subjects of experimental and control groups
Threat to internal validity
Diffusion of treatment
changes in the behaviors or responses of participants may be due to information they have received from others participating in the study: solution- attempt to minimize by testing subjects all at once or as close together in time as possible
Threat to internal validity
floor or ceiling effects
the measuring instrument used is not sensitive enough to detect differences: solution-ensure that measuring instrument is reliable and valid before beginning the study
Threat to internal validity
experimenter and subject effects
either experimenters or subjects consciously or unconsciously affect the results of the study: solution- use a double-blind or single blind procedure
Threat to internal validity
selection
the participants can make a group nonequivalent by their characteristics or experiences
Threat to external validity- Sampling
ex: a convenience sample wouldn’t apply to the entire population, but a random or representative sample would
Threat to external validity- interaction of selection and treatment
If it is found that there are differences between the groups, you need to make sure one select group gets the IV
Threat to external validity- Interaction of testing and treatment
pretest sensitization- the pretest draws attention to the IV: solution- give the pretest without the treatment
Threat to external validity- Multiple treatment interaction
: When the same
subjects receive two or more treatments as in a
repeated measures design, there may be a carryover
effect between treatments such the the results
cannot be generalized to single treatments.
Threat to external validity- reactive arrangements
An effect that is due simply to the fact that subjects know that they are participating in an experiment and experiencing the novelty of it — the Hawthorne effect.
Threat to external validity- instrumentation
consistency of the dependent variable being measured by a machine or human, machine needs to be calibrated, humans need to be consistent
Predictive (relational) method- correlation
only attempts to determine if there is a relationship between 2 variables (problem: there is a lack of control on extraneous variable)
Predictive method- pearson r
used when the independent and dependent variables are numeric
Predictive method-
Point biserial
the correlation coefficient used when one of the variables is measured on a dichotomous nominal scale and the other is measured on an interval or ratio scale
