Cognition and Learning Flashcards
Selective attention
attending to one thing while ignoring others
divided attention
paying attention to one thing more than another
Broadbent’s model
Filters out the message before incoming information is analyzed for meaning
Treisman’s attenuation model
Language and meaning can be used to separate messages. The analysis only goes as far as it takes until the message is identified.
Attenuation theory
message is split between what is attended and unattended. Then they pass through the attenuator, but the attended message emerges at full strength while unattended message comes through weaker. Message is analyzed by a dictionary unit and is then converted to memory. Broadbent goes though sensory memory and is then passed through a filter. and then through a detector unit before it is committed to memory.
late selection
most of the incoming information is processed by meaning before the message is selected
early selection
unattended information is filtered out right at the beginning of the flow and filtered using physical characteristics
stroop effect
name of the word interferes with the ability to name the ink color. Cannot avoid paying attention to the meanings of the words.
Attention
focusing on a specific features, objects, or locations or on certain thoughts or activities
Visual perception
the ability to interpret the surrounding environment by processing information that is in visible light
Covert attention
shifting attention from object to object without moving your eyes
overt attention
shifting eyes to change attention
topographic map
spatial map of visual stimuli on the visual cortex
inattention blindness
over looking something that is in plain sight
low-load task
a task that requires little processing capacity.
high load task
a task that uses a high amount or all of processing capacity, such as first learning to drive etc
Treisman’s feature integration theory (FIT)
Preattentive stage- 1st step in processing an image, objects are analyzed into separate features and exist independently
Focused attention stage- combines “free floating” feature to create the perception of the whole object
scene scheme
identifying objects that typically exist in a certain setting
change blindness
if shown two versions of a picture, differences between them are not immediately apparent
Binding
the process by which features such as color, form, motion, and location are combined to create our perception of a coherent object
Binding problem
the problem of explaining how an objects individual features become bound together.
Working memory on reading processing
A limited-capacity system for temporary storage and manipulation of information for complex tasks such as comprehension, learning and reasoning.
George miller’s contributions to short term memory
Digit span- number of digits a person can remember average cap 7 plus or minus 2.
Chunking- small units can be grouped into remembering large chunk
Response of Broadbent (1958)
filter model introduced a flow chart, this helped usher in the information processing approach to cognition.
Atkinson and shiffrin modal model (1968)
proposed 3 styles of memory: sensory, short term, and long term. Also had control processess
Baddeley and Hitch working memory (1974)
limited capacity stsyem for storage and manipulation of information for complex tasks such as comprehension, learning and reasoning. Brought on by phonological loop, visuospatial sketch pad, and central executive
Structure components of memory
1) info enters sensory memory 2) focus on specific info and it enters short term memory 3) rehearse info to keep short term memory 4) memorize and store in long term memory 5) retrieve number from long term memory
Emphasis of working memory
deals with active processing
Central executive’s role in working memory
makes working memory “work” its the control center of working memory. It is the attention controller: decides how attention is focused and divided, coordinates how information is used by the phonological loop and visospatial sketch pad.
What is Sensory memory and how does it work?
Retention for brief periods of time, EX the example of seeing a movie and laughing at something funny?
baddeley’s model of working memory
phonological loop- verbal and auditory information, has a limited capacity and holds information for only a few seconds
Central executive- pulls information from long term memory and coordinates activity of the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketch pad
Visuospatial sktech pad- manipulation and temporary storage of visual and spatial information
How working memory differs from STM
STM- storage, involved in the transfer of information to and from long long term memory
WM- processing, manipulation of information for complex task
Difficulties of having STM problems
Delayed-response task, tested in monkeys. They have to hold information in their working memories, but with damage to the prefrontal cortex, they can only do this successfully about 50% of the time,
Learning activities working memory is involved in
comprehension, learning and reasoning
Persistence of vision
continued perception of visual stimulus even after it’s no longer there. Persistence lasts for a fraction of a second
How chunking can improve STM
chunking is a collection of elements strongly associated with one another but weakly associated with elements in other chunks.
Identify an example of detailed long term memory
anything past STM, so more than 30 seconds. Could be a memory from an hour ago, or from that one time a long time ago
The relationship between classical conditioning and implicit memory
they are related because they can cause one another.
personal significance can make semantic memories easier to remember how?
semantic memories are able to be binded with information that is already very familiar to you, therefore making them easier to remember
Difference between procedural, semantic, and working
Procedural-limited capacity system for temporary storage and manipulation
semantic memory- memory of facts, a portion of long term memory that processes ideas and concepts not drawn from personal experience, sound of letters names of colors, and capitals
Working- limited capacity system for temporary storage and manipulation
Characteristics of implicit memory
occurs when learning from experience is not accompanied by conscious remembering. Procedural memory, priming, and classical conditioning involve implicit memory.
What is semantic memory?
memory for facts, such as the name and location of a coffee shop
difference between episodic and semantic memory
Episodic- memory for specific personal experience, involving mental time travel back in time
Semantic memory- not drawn from personal experience, it is facts and concepts that are often common knowledge
When does priming occur?
priming occurs when the presentation of one stimulus (priming stimulus) changes the way a person responds to another stimulus (test stimulus)
Repetition Priming
Occurs when the test stimulus is the same as or resembles the priming stimulus EX: seeing the word cat may cause you to respond more quickly to a later presentation of the word cat, even if you do not remember seeing the word.
Function of the hippocampus
Hippocampus is involved in maintaining novel information in memory during short delays. Plays a role in STM and LTM
Ex of coding
seeing a face and committing it to memory
what is episodic memory?
memory for specific personal experiences, involving mental time ravel back in time to achieve a feeling of reliving the experience.
Explicit vs implicit memories
Explicit- memories we are aware of
Implicit memories- memories we are not aware of
Encoding
transferring to long term memory
levels of processing theory
memory depends on depth of processing an item receives. Both shallow and deep levels of processing
Elaborative Rehearsal
using meanings and connections to help transfer information to LTM
Shallow processing
little attention to meaning, focus on physical features, poor memory
Linking words to yourself
improves memory by utilizing self reference effect
generating information
generating material on your own improves memory, call the generation effect
retrieval cues
encoding specificity-we learn information together with its context
Stat dependent learning- learning is associated with a particular internal state
Consolidation
transforms new information from fragile state to more permanent state
Standard model of consolidation
retrieval depends on hippocampus during consolidation; after consolidation hippocampus is no longer needed
Types of amnesia
Retrograde amnesia- loss of memory for events prior to the trauma
graded amnesia- memory for recent events is more fragile than for remote events
Make it stick
Elaborate- associate what you are learning to what you already know
Generate and test- the generation effect (the idea that information is better remembered if it is generated from one’s own mind rather than simply read)
take breaks- memory is better for multiple short study sessions (spacing effect), consolidation is enhanced if you sleep after studying
Avoid the “illusion of learning” familiarity does not mean comprehension
Don’t pull all nighters
Properties of language
Major elements of language- comprehension: how people understand spoken and written language.
Speech production: how people produce language
Representation: how language is presented in mind and brain
Acquisition: how people learn language
Its creative, hierarchial structure, governing rules, and universality.
BF skinner and behavorism
proposed that language is learned through reinforcement
Phoneme
the smallest unit of sound in a given language that can be recognized as being distinct from other sounds in the language; combine to form words
Language development across cultures
there is evidence that a culture’s language can influence the way people perceive and think.
Lexical decision task
quickly deciding between a word or non-word
Word frequency effect
we respond more rapidly to high frequency words that we hear a lot versus low frequency words
Realm of conversational speech
within the realm of conversational speech, context refers to the meaning of the conversation
Syntax
associated with grammar. Sentence level structure of language that connects words and ideas; includes rules for constructing different types of sentences
what would a person with Broca’s aphesia suffer with?
slow, labored ungrammatical speech. Speak in short sentences and often omit words
Late closer
in parsing, when a person encounters a new word the parser assumes the word is part of the new phrase
Syntax first approach to parsing
as people read a sentence, their grouping of words into phrases is governed by a number of rules that are based on syntax
interactionist approach to parsing
the idea that information provided by both syntax and semantics is taken into account simultaneously as we read or listen to a sentence
Parsing
the process by which words in a sentence are grouped into phrases. Grouping into phrases is a major determinant of the meaning of the sentence
define language
a system of communication using sounds or symbols that enables us to express our feelings, thought, ideas and experiences
causal inference
inferences that the events described in one clause or sentence were caused by events that occurred in previous sentence. EX: she took asprin. her headache went away
Unique or creative about the human language
it can create messages that have never been written or spoken. It’s hierarchical and governed by rules
coherence
the representation of the text in a person’s mind so that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text
what does solving “maier’s two strings” problem represent?
solving the problem represents the idea that restructuring representation of how to achieve a problem leads to faster solutions
Divergent thinking
thinking that is open ended and has a large number of potential solutions
creative problem solving
innovative thinking, new connections for existing ideas
analogical paradox
Participants in psychological experiments tend to focus on surface features in analogy problems, whereas people in the real world frequently use deeper, more structural features, the study of this is achieved by a technique called vivo research
“invivo problem solving”
technique involves observing people determine how they solve problems in real world situations. this technique’s advantage is that it captures thinking in naturalistic settings. A disadvantage is that it is time consuming and difficult to isolate and control the variables
analogical encoding
the process by which two problems are compared and similarities between them are determined
think out loud protocol
where subjects are asked to say out loud what they are thinking while solving a problem. They do not describe what they are doing, but instead verbalize new thoughts are they occur. One goal is to determine what information the person is attending to while solving a problem.
insight
the sudden realization of a problem’s solution
Differences between experts and novices in problem solving
Experts have higher and faster success rate. Experts tend to have more information and knowledge about their field of study and this knowledge is organized differently. However when the problem isn’t in the experts field of expertise, they don’t perform well.
functional fixedness
type of fixation that works against solving a problem. Focusing on familiar uses of an object
means-ends analysis
problem solving strategy that seeks to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states. Achieve subgoals and accomplish big goals
explain analogical encoding
a technique in which people compare two problems that illustrates a principle. This technique is designed to help people discover similar structural features of a case or problem.
Cognitive psych
refers to the mental processes, such as perception, attention, and memory, that are what the mind does.
behaviorism
the approach that states that observed behavior provides the only valid data for psychology
Wundt
had the first psych lab, in leipzig germany
structuralism (wundt)
experience is determined by combining elements of experience called sensations
analytic introspection (wundt)
participants trained to describe experiences and thought processes in response to stimuli
Ebbinghaus
Savings curve- the plot of savings vs time after original learning.
Savings- measure used by ebbinghaus to determine the magnitude of memory left from initial learning. Most memory is lost in the first two days.
Pavlov
classical conditioning (john watson). The pairing of a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that elicits a reponse
Thorndike
law of effect- behaviors change as a result of consequences to actions
Watson
behavior can be analyzed without any reference to the mind.
Skinner
operant conditioning - shape behavior by rewards or punishments, behavior that is rewarded is more likely to be repeated, behavior that is punished is less likely to occur
positive reinforcement
when a desirable or appetitive reinforcer is obtained as a consequence of a response, resulting in an increase in frequency or probability of the response happening
negative reinforcement
the process of removing an adversive stimulus or negative reinforcer contingent on the response
positive punishment
presenting a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future.
negative punishment
try to think of it as taking away a certain desired item after the undesired behavior happens in order to decrease future responses.
Fixed ratio
reinforcement contingent on the number of responses, every 5 cars sold equals paycheck
fixed interval
reinforcement contingent on the amount of time passed, pay check every two weeks
variable ratio
reinforcement contingent on the average number of responses required to get a response, slot machine
variable interval
reinforcement contingent on the average time interval which must pass since last reinforcer. ( random quality control checks)
shaping
the process of taking advantage of the variations that naturally occur in any repeated behavior, a series of successive steps leads to a learned behavior.
extinction
elimination of a conditioned response
Extinction burst
often occurs when extinction procedure has just begun. this consists of a sudden and temporary increase in the response’s frequency, followed by the eventual decline and extinction of the behavior targeted for elimination
Token economy
a system of behavior modification based on the systematic reinforcement of target behavior
post reinforcement pause
a pause in responding that typically occurs after the delivery of the reinforcer on fixed-ratio and fixed-interval schedules of reinforcement
Sensation
the process of sensing our environment through touch, taste sight sound and smell
perception
an experience resulting from stimulation of the senses
law of good continuation
lines tend to be seen as following the smoothest path
law of pragnanz
every stimulus pattern is seen so the resulting structure is as simple as possible
law of similarity
similar things appear grouped together
speech segmentation
the ability to tell when one word ends and another begins
oblique effects
people can perceive verticals and horizontals more easily than other orientations
likelihood principle
we perceive the world in the way that is “most likely” based on our past experiences
cocktail party effect
focusing on one partial stimulus while filtering out many others
automatic processing
processing that occurs automatically without intention, uses little cognitive function
unconditioned stimulus
something that generates a response automatically without any previous training.
