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EAS 100 - DONE > Final (PPTs: After Midterm) > Flashcards

Final (PPTs: After Midterm) Flashcards

1
Q

Skipped Some Slides (Oct 23-25)

A

Earth’s magnetic field, inclination (distance from pole) and declination (direction to pole), linear magnetic anomalies

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2
Q

What does remnant magnetism do?

A

Some ancient rocks were (weakly) magnetized when formed - “Remanent magnetism”
• “Fossil compass needles”
• If age of rocks is known, remanent magnetism indicates the ancient location of the pole; apparent pole position.

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3
Q

What does APWP stand for?

A

Apparent polar wander path.

Different continents show different APWPs, so the continents must move

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4
Q

What is the Vine-Matthews hypothesis?

A

Magnetic anomalies result from remanent magnetism acquired during spreading of ocean-floor while magnetic reversals occurred.

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5
Q

What are some ways to measure ground shaking?

A
  • Ancient seismic detector
  • Traditional seismograph
  • Seismometer
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6
Q

How is the intensity of an earthquake measured?

A

The intensity is the strength of the ground skaing at a point and depends on factors such as distance from focus. Measured through modified Mercalli scale?

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7
Q

How is the magnitude of an earthquake measured?

A

Magnitude is a measure of total energy released and is measured using a modern scale based on Richter’s. It is a log scale whereby each step on scale multiplies energy by sqrt(1000).

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8
Q

What are the different seismic waves?

A

Body waves (P):
• 3-7 km/s in the crust
• Similar to sound waves
• Compression and expansion (‘dilation’)
• Vibration direction parallel to propagation
• Pass through solid, liquid or gas.
Body waves (S):
• 1.5- 5 km/s in the crust
• Shear waves
• Vibration direction perpendicular to propagation
• Solids only
Surface waves (L/Rayleigh):
– Surface waves form when body waves reach the surface
– Slower but larger than body waves
– Cause most damage

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9
Q

What is the difference between epicentre and focus?

A

Focus is origin of earthquake and epicentre is location on surface above focus.

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10
Q

Describe Tsunami waves.

A 
• Tsunami: surface waves on ocean 
– Low on open ocean (~ 1 m) 
– 600 km/hr + 
– In shallow water, slow down, get higher (>10 m) 
– Devastate coastal communities
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11
Q

Describe earthquakes.

A
  • Earthquakes result from – Elastic strain followed by… – Brittle fracture (or brittle failure).
  • These processes occur in cold rocks, typically < 70 km deep (>100 km at subduction zones)
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12
Q

What are the S and P wave shadow zones?

A

S: 105-180
P: 105-142

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13
Q

What are some ways to directly measure plate movement?

A
  • GPS
  • Re-occupied sites
  • Plate movement velocities in agreement with magnetic anomalies
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14
Q

Skipped Some Slides (Oct 25-Nov 3)

A

Velocity within channel, turbulent flow upstream vs laminar. terraces, superimposed drainage, oxbow lake, natural levees, alluvial fans, delta and classification, lakes.

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15
Q

Small streams (tributaries) typically merge downstream. The area drained by a major river and its tributaries is a ___ ___. These are separated by ___ ___.

A

Drainage basin. Drainage divides.

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16
Q

Streams show variability in gradient, width, depth, velocity, and discharge. What happens to the former 4 as discharge increases (farther downstream)?

A

Width increases.
Depth increases.
Velocity increases.
Gradient decreases.

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17
Q

Streams show variability in gradient, width, depth, velocity, and discharge. What happens to the former 4 as discharge increases (farther downstream)?

A

Width increases.
Depth increases.
Velocity increases.
Gradient decreases.

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18
Q

What are the 2 types of stream erosion?

A

Downcutting and lateral erosion.

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19
Q

What is mass wasting and what are examples?

A

Mass wasting is due to gravity, with or without assistance of transporting medium.
-Creep, landslides(rotational and translational), rockfalls and avalanches, debris flow.

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20
Q

What is volcanically triggered debris flow called?

A

Lahar.

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21
Q

What is base level?

A

The level at which a stream enters the sea or a lake.

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22
Q

What are types of drainage patters?

A

Dendritic, parallel, radial, rectangular, trellised.

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23
Q

What rock types form steeper slopes?

A

Erosion-resistant.

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24
Q

Describe buttes vs mesa (formations formed by more stable rock)?

A

Mesa has a width that is substantially longer than height in comparison to Butte.

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25
Q

What are the different forms of sediment transport?

A
  • Bedload (rolling, sliding, saltation)
  • Suspended load
  • Dissolved load (ions in solution)
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26
Q

What are the features on the inside and outside of a meander?

A

Inside is point bar and outside is cut bank. Meanders tend to migrate downstream.

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27
Q

What is a recurrence interval?

A

Frequency of past floods can be plotted, calculating the average time interval between two floods of equal magnitude.

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28
Q

What is channelization?

A

River channels are often modified for the purpose of flood control.

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29
Q

Down cutting may leave old floodplains as ___.

A

Terraces.

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30
Q

What are braided channels?

A

Habe multiple channels separated by bars. Typically form where discharge is variable and banks are easily eroded. Common in glacier-fed rivers.

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31
Q

In general, an obstacle to flow is necessary to produce a lake (geologically short lived). What are some causes of lakes?

A

– Glacial erosion & deposition
– Volcanic activity
– Tectonism
– Deposition and erosion of sediment by water (e.g. oxbow lakes in meandering river systems)

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32
Q

What are the typical sediments of open and closed lakes?

A

Open: muds, with sand near shores.
Closed: salt from evaporation.

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33
Q

Groundwater is likely less than ___% of Earth’s water.

A

1%

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34
Q

The elements dissolved in groundwater consist of …? (dissolve from common rock-forming mineral, varies depending on surround rock)

A

Chlorides, sulfates, and bicarbonates of calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium.

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35
Q

Groundwater flows between pore spaces by ___.

A

Percolation.

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36
Q

Percolation flow depends on porosity and permeability of rock. What are these?

A

– Porosity: the percentage of the total volume of rock that consists of open pore spaces
– Permeability: a measure of how easily a solid allows fluids to pass through it

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37
Q

What are the zones of groundwater?

A
  • Zone of aeration: pore spaces partly filled by water
  • Zone of saturation: pore spaces entirely filled
  • Water table: the surface that separates these zones
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38
Q

Skipped Some Slides (Nov 3-6)

A

Groundwater flow, recharge and discharge, springs, confined vs. unconfined aquifer, cement.

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39
Q

What is the Hydraulic head?

A

Measures pressure difference driving flow.

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40
Q

What are aquifers and aquicludes?

A

Aquifers are porous rock units that have enough permeability to supply water at a rate useful to humans
An aquiclude is an impermeable unit with permeability low enough to form a barrier to flow

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41
Q

When will a cone of depression form (unconfined aquifer)?

A

If the rate of withdrawal exceeds the rate of local groundwater flow in an aquifer.

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42
Q

If it has high hydrostatic pressure, it is an ___ aquifer, freely flowing.

A

Artesian (confined aquifer).
Water level rises in wells due to the hydraulic head, reaches level close to water table in recharge area (potentiometric surface).

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43
Q

___ dissolved in rainwater makes it slightly acidic.

A

CO2.

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44
Q

Groundwater solution creates distinctive landscape features in limestone and other soluble rock types. Name some.

A
  • Cave systems are very large pore spaces formed by solution
  • Sinkholes form where the roof of a cave collapses
  • Karst topography is characterized by numerous sinkholes and/or pillars of rock isolated by solution
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45
Q

Mineral deposits (typically calcite) form in air-filled portions of caves. What are they?

A
  • Stalactites resemble icicles hanging from ceiling

* Stalagmites are corresponding pillars growing from cave floor

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46
Q

Skipped Some Slides (Nov 6-8).

A

Annual snow line, glaciers as envir. records, flow of glaciers (temperate and polar), deforming stress (alignment of crystals). terminus of glaciers, accumulation and ablation, equilibrium line, mechanisms of erosion (plucking = main), sea ice effect on ocean circ. and envir. (albedo)

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47
Q

What affects the location of the snow line?

A

Temperature and moisture.

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48
Q

What is the defn on glaciers?

A

Ice masses that flow under the influence of gravity are glaciers. Form from snow that has compacted until it is so dense it is impenetrable to air (considered a rock).

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49
Q

What are the 6 types of glaciers?

A 
– Cirque glacier 
– Valley glacier 
– Fjord glacier 
– Ice cap 
– Ice sheet 
– Ice shelf
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50
Q

Greenland and Antarctica include ___% of Earth’s glaciers and reach 3000 m thick.

A

95%

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51
Q

The most recent glaciation ended …?

A

~10 ka. However, there have been many glacial and interglacial periods in last 2 Ma.

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52
Q

How does glacier ice form?

A
  • Evaporation occurs at points of snowflakes
  • Moisture freezes between points
  • Granular snow is called firn
  • Snow gradually loses interstitial air to become glacier ice
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53
Q

In glaciers, grain size ___ downward.

A

Increases as ice recrystallizes.

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54
Q

Top ___ m of glacier is brittle, does not flow.

A

50m

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55
Q

What are the temp profiles are the two types of glaciers?

A

– Polar glacier is below freezing point throughout

– Temperate glacier is close to freezing point, and has liquid water at base

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56
Q

Why might glaciers experiences surges (several km/yr)? Rapid retreats?

A
  • Surges may be related to water at base buildup

- rapid retreat may occur when fjord glaciers retreat from a sea-floor shoal and experience calving

57
Q

What are some erosional surface features/landforms of glaciers?

A
  • Rock surfaces with striations and chatter marks
  • U-shaped valleys
  • Cirques
  • Hanging valleys
  • Arêtes
  • Horns
58
Q

What are some glacial deposits?

A
  • Till
  • Terminal and lateral moraines
  • Medial moraines
  • Drumlins (ice sheets)
  • Eskers (below)and kames (above0
59
Q

Describe the formation of sea ice.

A
  • Air temperature falls below freezing point of salty water
  • Initially small needles of ice form: frazil ice
  • Eventually freeze together to make continuous ice cover
  • Subsequent freezing adds ice to base • Melting and sublimation removes ice from surface
  • Upward movement of ice – typically 45 cm/yr
60
Q

What are the two zones of ice?

A

Perennial and seasonal.

61
Q

Describe some features of sea ice movement.

A
  • Sea ice typically moves several km per day
  • Ice may crack producing leads of open water
  • Leads may freeze to make a complex mosaic
  • Convergence of ice masses produces pressure ridges
  • Large openings in sea ice are Polynyas
62
Q

What does AABW and NADW stand for?

A

Antarctic Bottom Water

North Atlantic Deep Water

63
Q

Permafrost, permanently frozen ground, contains ice that froze during glacial ages. It extends down ___ m in Siberia and ___ m in Canadian arctic.

A

1500m

1000m

64
Q

Where is permafrost thickest?

A

In areas not covered by insulating ice sheets.

65
Q

What is the active layer?

A

Active layer on top of permafrost melts in summer (wet/mobile). Underlying permafrost is impermeable.

66
Q

Ocean covers ___% of Earth’s surface.

A

71%

67
Q

Give the properties of the ocean water depth.

A
  • Maximum depth 11 km
  • Average depth 4.5 km
  • Volume of ocean water 1.35 x 10^18 m^3
  • Varies over time (melting of ice)
68
Q

What is the total salinity of the sea (contains a variety of ions)?

A

~3.5% or 35 psu.

Sodium 30.62% and chloride 55.07%

69
Q

What is the origins of dissolved ions in oceans?

A
  • Introduced by rivers as dissolved load

* Introduced from submarine volcanic activity

70
Q

Skipped Some Slides (Nov 8-20)

A

Changes in composition of seawater over time, tides, flood and ebb currents. changes in relative sea level (eustatic/worldwide and local), deltas, beaches, descriptions of continental shelves, slopes, rises.

71
Q

What is the thermocline and halocline and pycnocline?

A
  • Cold water is denser, sinks
  • Thermocline is zone of rapid temp. change
  • Saline water is denser, sinks
  • Halocline is region of rapid salinity change. (Not present everywhere)
  • Pycnocline is zone of rapid density change
72
Q

What are the forces driving ocean currents?

A
  • Air currents (wind) on surface
  • Sinking of denser (cold or saline) water
  • Rotation of Earth
73
Q

What are the thermohaline currents?

A 
• High salinity descending currents
– AABW Antarctic Bottom Water 
– NADW North Atlantic Deep Water 
• North flowing surface currents
• AAIW (Antarctic Intermediate Water)
74
Q

Due to the Coriolis effect, the surface of solid Earth is rotating slightly about vertical axis (everywhere except at equator). In what directions?

A
  • Counterclockwise (CCW) in N hemisphere – Clockwise (CW) in S hemisphere
  • Objects moving in a straight line appear to curve relative to solid Earth beneath them – Right in N hemisphere – Left in S hemisphere
75
Q

What is the Ekman effect?

A

Because of Coriolis effect, wind driven current in N hemisphere is slightly CW of actual wind direction. Deeper currents are progressively rotated CW.

76
Q

Overall average water movement is ___ CW of wind.

A

90º

77
Q

What is the Ekman transport.

A

Based on wind direction, current is 90º.
• Upwelling where Ekman transport is offshore
• Downwelling where Ekman transport is onshore

78
Q

Surface circulation is dominated by Coriolis-driven ___.

A

Gyres.

79
Q

Deep circulation is driven by density (___) effects.

A

Thermohaline.

80
Q

Waves result from wind action on water surfaces. Motion of water follows looping ___. Motion decreases downward to ___.

A

Orbitals.

Wavebase.

81
Q

Define wave height and wave length.

A

Wave height: vertical difference between crest and trough next to it, typically less than 1 m (L/2)
Wave length: resultant difference between 2 subsequent crests (L)

82
Q

Wave orbitals flatten in shallow water due to drag on sea floor. Wave crests overtake deeper water in ___ zone.

A

Surf zone.

83
Q

Describe longshore transport.

A
  • Waves approaching shore obliquely
  • Oscillating motion is converted to longshore current
  • Sediments are carried along shore: longshore drift
84
Q

Most areas experience high tide every ~___ hrs. Tide rises and falls

A

~12 hrs 50 mins.

<1m.

85
Q

The Sun also causes tides, but only ~half as effectively as the moon. What are spring and neap tides? (14 day cycle from spring to spring)

A

Spring tides are when the sun and moon are in-line and effects are combined. Neap tides are when Sun and moon are at 90 degrees and effects are opposed.

86
Q

Define estuaries.

A

Wide-mouthed rivers typically form in areas of high tidal range. Low animal diversity due to fluctuations in freshwater conditions.

87
Q

Descibe carbonate shorelines and atolls.

A
  • In clear tropical seas, organisms build reefs: structures of Calcium Carbonate built up from sea floor
  • Deposition can keep pace with tectonic subsidence
  • Produces atolls around former volcanic islands
  • Forms lagoons, recall oolites
88
Q

What are some type of sediment gravity flows on continental slopes and rises?

A

– Debris flows: particles supported by plastic mud

– Turbidity currents: particles supported by fluid turbulence

89
Q

Continental shelves go to depths of

A

<200m.

90
Q

What are submarine fans?

A

Sediment deposits on the continental rise. Alluvial fan equivalent of deeper water settings.

91
Q

What are pelagic sediments and describe the three types.

A

Pelagic sediments: deposited far from land influence.
• Calcareous ooze: Remains of planktonic (suspended) organisms with calcium carbonate skeletons
• Siliceous ooze: Similar, but radiolarian instead of plankton and silica instead of calcium carbonate
.• Deep-sea clay: most common clastic sediment in deep sea

92
Q

Lowest ___ km contains 50% of atmosphere. Lowest ___ km contains 99% of atmosphere.

A

5.5 km

32 km

93
Q

Skipped Some Slides (Nov 20-24).

A

Barometers (Hg and Aneroid), Dalton’s law of partial pressures, latent heat, saturation, distribution of high and low pressure (polar and tropic highs and lows), polar front

94
Q

What is average pressure at sea level?

A

101.325 kPa, defn of isobars

95
Q

How does pressure vary?

A

Decreases upwards and varies slightly from place to place.

96
Q

Define temperature vs heat.

A
  • Temperature measures average kinetic energy of molecules

* Heat refers to total energy of all molecules

97
Q

Atmosphere is divided on basis of temperature into 4 layers. What are they? (~500 km above surface merges with space)

A

Troposphere (temp decreases with altitude):
• ~16 km thick at equator
• ~10 km at poles
• Top surface is tropopause
• Heated from below, by heat reradiated
• Contains most weather
Stratosphere (increases):
• Extends from top of troposphere to ~50 km
• Temperature increases upward due to absorption of solar UV energy by ozone O3
• Upper boundary is stratopause
Mesosphere (decreases):
• Temperature decreases upward to ~80 km
• Upper boundary is Mesopause
• Coldest layer
Thermosphere (increases):
• Heating by particles from Sun
• Temperature is high but molecules are scarce, so total heat content very low
• 80-~500 km

98
Q

What is adiabatic temp change (origin of chinooks)?

A
  • As air masses rise, pressure falls, and expansion occurs
  • This expansion involves conversion of heat energy into mechanical energy
  • Temperature falls
99
Q

What is the adiabatic lapse rate?

A

Rate of temperature change with elevation is 1ºC per 100 m, or 10ºC/km (reduced if moisture present and clouds form)

100
Q

What are the components of the atmosphere?

A 
• Gases 
– Nitrogen (78%)
– Oxygen (21%) 
– Argon 
– Carbon dioxide 
– Water vapour 
– etc. • 
Aerosols– Water droplets– Ice particles 
– Solid particles 
• Salt 
• Windblown dust 
• Smoke particles 
• etc.
101
Q

What are the 5 greenhouse gases?

A

CO2, water vapour, methane nitrous oxide, ozone

102
Q

Total amount of water vapour varies between ~___% and ~___%.

A

~0.3% and ~4%.

103
Q

Saturation pressure ___ with temp.

A

Increases.

104
Q

What is relative humidity?

A
  • The relative humidity is the actual vapour pressure of water divided by the saturation pressure
  • If relative humidity is 100%, condensation can occur
  • Relative humidity may be raised by increasing the amount of water vapour or by reducing temperature
105
Q

What is the dew point?

A

For a given amount of moisture in the air, the dew point is the temperature at which
– The relative humidity would be 100%
– Condensation would start to occur

106
Q

Adiabatic cooling of rising air is a common cause of condensation. Describe.

A
  • Condensation releases latent heat energy, which offsets adiabatic cooling
  • Lapse rate is reduced for condensing air
107
Q

What is the ITCZ?

A

Inter tropical convergence zone. Migrates with seasons.

108
Q

When flow is parallel to isobars, pressure gradient is ___ by Coriolis effect. Flow becomes a straight geostrophic flow.

A

Balanced.

109
Q

As a result of Coriolis effect, global air circulation is broken into several cells. What are they?

A
  • Hadley cell –pressure gradient flow
  • Ferrel cell – poorly defined, circulation driven by adjacent cells
  • Polar cell – pressure gradient flow
110
Q

Flow near surface is not exactly geostrophic since friction reduces the Coriolis effect on pressure gradient flow. In N hemisphere, wind direction is ___ from isobars.

A

CCW

111
Q

Ekman spirals: In N hemisphere, high pressure areas (anticyclones) have ___ outward spiralling winds.

A

CW.

  • Low pressure areas (cyclones) have CCW inward spiralling wind.
  • Opposite in S
112
Q

Where are easterlies and westerlies dominant?

A
  • Equatorial areas dominated by easterlies ‘trade winds’
  • Mid-latitudes dominated by westerlies
  • Easterlies predominate in polar region
113
Q

Where are jet streams located?

A
  • Mid latitude change in altitude of tropopause creates steep pressure gradient
  • Strong westerly geostrophic flow is jet stream
  • Located above polar front
114
Q

Weather conditions are controlled by air masses up to 2000 km wide. Name the types.

A

– Continental polar: cold, dry
– Maritime polar: cool, moist
– Continental tropical: hot, dry
– Maritime tropical: warm, moist

115
Q

Fronts are boundaries between air masses. Name the two types.

A

Warm front: warm advances on cold, shown with rounded tooth line

Cold front: cold advances on warm, shown with pointed toothed line

116
Q
  • Typical wind speeds average ___ - ___ km/hr
  • Fastest average speed: ___ km/hr. (Cape Dennison Antarctica)
  • Hurricane and storm winds: up to ___ km/hr
  • Highest ever recorded: ___ km/hr: (Mt. Washington, USA)
A

10 – 30

70

335 (40 is storm conditions)

372

117
Q

Skipped Some Slides (Nov 24-27).

A

3 factors controlling wind speed, geostrophic winds, mountain and valley winds, chinooks and related winds, nucleation energy, defn of dew and frost, lightning, tornadoes, sand transport, cross-bedding.

118
Q

Friction with surfaces modifies and slows wind speeds and reduces the Coriolis effect. How much on smooth surfaces? Rough?

A
  • Smooth surface (e.g. sea): deflection 10 - 20º

* Rough surface (e.g. forest) : deflection up to 50º

119
Q

Seasonal migration of pressure belts reverses wind direction. This affects India, Australia, W. Africa. Explain monsoons in India.

A
  • Winter: – ITCZ lies S of India – Dry NE trade winds from land
  • Summer – ITCZ migrates N – SW wind from ocean brings heavy rain
120
Q

Sea and Land breezes are local pressure gradient winds. Describe them.

A 
Sea breezes:
• Day: land heats faster than sea 
• Air rises over land: low pressure 
• Sea breeze blows toward land
Land breezes:
• Night: land cools faster than sea 
• Air rises over sea: low pressure 
• Land breeze blows toward sea
121
Q

What are katabatic winds? Eg. Mistral wind in Mediterranean.

A

• Cold dense air accumulates over high plateau, glacier, or ice cap • Cold air spills into valley

122
Q

Nucleation produces water droplets (clouds) which grow rapidly to ~___μ diameter. If more than 1 per mm^3, collisions lead to raindrops.

A

~20 μ

123
Q

High nucleation energy inhibits ice formation down to ___ºC.

A

9ºC.

-10ºC to -20ºC: clouds are mixed water droplets and ice crystals. Below that, all ice.

124
Q

What are the different types of cloud formation?

A

– Density lifting
– Frontal lifting
– Orographic lifting
– Convergence lifting

125
Q

What are the 3 basic cloud types?

A

– Cumulus: flat base (dew point), domed top, typical of rising warm air and density lifting.
– Stratus: horizontally extensive flat layers, typical of frontal lifting
– Cirrus: wispy high clouds, typical ice-particle clouds of upper troposphere.

126
Q

Where do thunderstorms form?

A
  • Form in warm moist air masses, during daytime heating

* Especially along cold fronts where mT air contacts cP air

127
Q

Tropical cyclones form 5-10º N or S of equator. Describe them.

A

• Require:
– Warm moist air (> 26º C over sea)
– Condensation to supply latent heat for continued density lifting
– Coriolis effect to drive rotation
• If winds >119 km/hr, hurricane status
• Naming depends on location
– Hurricane (Atlantic)
– Typhoon (NW Pacific)
– Cyclone (Australia)
• Low pressure centre raises sea level up to 9 m
• Wind may drive raised water on shore: storm surge
• Very high rainfall (>250 mm common): flooding

128
Q

• Deserts:

A

<250 mm

250-500 mm

129
Q

Belts of low rainfall correspond to regions of divergence. What are the 4 belts?

A

– North polar high
– North subtropical high
– South subtropical high
– South polar high

130
Q

What are the 5 types of deserts?

A 
– Subtropical 
– Continental 
– Rainshadow 
– Coastal 
– Polar
131
Q

Not all deserts are ‘sand seas’ (___). Large areas have rocky desert pavement.

A

Ergs.

132
Q

Small grains lie in zone of ___ flow: not easily Moved by wind. Larger grains enter turbulent zone and can roll, displacing small grains into turbulent zone.

A

Laminar.

133
Q

Dust storms have visibility…?

A

<1km

134
Q

What are Loess?

A

Aeolian deposits.

135
Q

Skipped CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE.

A
  • Introduction to climate
  • Recorded climate change: the last two hundred years
  • Longer term change: hundreds to thousands of years
  • Quaternary glaciation
  • Climate change over geologic time
  • Causes of natural climate change
136
Q

Skipped THE BIOSPHERE.

A
  • Living processes
  • Species and their classification
  • Cells and their structure
  • Energy and the carbon cycle
  • Energy flow, biogeography, and ecosystems
  • Population dynamics
  • Biogeochemical cycles
137
Q

Skipped EVOLUTION.

A
  • Evidence for change in the biosphere
  • Mechanisms of evolution
  • Major steps in evolution
138
Q

Skipped THE ANTHOPOSPHERE: NATURAL RESOURCES AND HUMANS.

A
  1. Introduction to Earth resources
  2. Renewable resources
  3. Non-renewable resources

EAS 100 - DONE (22 decks)

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