Final LING 201 Flashcards
Mutual intelligibility
Speakers on average can understand each other, so speak different dialects // if not, they speak different language
Politics & Orthography
Intelligible varities can be labelled as different languages (SW VS NO, Azeri VS Turkish, Serbian VS Croatian) or unintelligible as dialects (okinawan and JAP, catalan and spanish)
Intelligible can have different orthographic systems (ser VS croa, hindi VS urdu)
Unitelligible may have same orthographic system (cantonese VS mandarin)
Dialect continuum
Gradual transition between two non-mutually intelligible varieties
Conundrum: some speakers might not understand each other, but most nearby speakers can. Not clear where to place boundary.
Ex: Arabic, East slavic, Turkic
Language death
when the last native speaker of a language dies (once every 3 months, ubykh, mank, sumer)
language change: latin & romance languages, sanskrit & indic languages, ancient egyptian as coptic
speakers are not evenly distributed : total around 7000, 5000 by less than 100k, 3000 by less than 10k
Language universals
Talk more generally about possible and impossible languages
Absolute universal
Something true for all languages
All languages exhibit linguistic creativity, have stops, vowels, stress, morphology
Universal tendency
Is usually but not always true
Syllable structure obeys the sonority principle (rising sonority towards the nucleus and falling sonority away from the nucleus EXCEPT Russian [mgla] ‘mist’
The most common stop phonemes are /p, t, k/ EXCEPT Hawaiian lacks /t/
Most languages have fricatives EXCEPT Hawaiian
Implicational universal
Something has to be true if something else is true (presence of marked structure implies presence of unmarked structure)
The presence of front rounded vowels implies the presence of front unrounded vowels
The presence of nasal vowel phonemes implies the presence of oral vowel phonemes
The presence of inflectional affixes implies the presence of derivational affixes
Unmarked
linguistic structures or elements that are basic, easy to learn, and cross-linguistically expected
Marked
linguistics structures or elements that are complex, difficult to learn, and cross-linguistically rare
History of English
Proto-germanic - 500-0, R
Proto-West-germanic - 0-500, R
Old English - 500-1100
Middle English - 1100-1500
Modern English - 1500-2000
Arbitrary and approximate divisions
Language family
group of related languages derived from the same ancestor (proto-language)
can be contained in other LF
Linguistic community slips up and resulting halves continue to evolve separately, until MI is lost
Indo-european
PIE, R, 5000-7000, UKR or TRK
Subfamilies :
Germanic = English, German, Icelandic, Yiddish
Romance = French, Romanian, Spanish, Portuguese
Balto-salvic = Russian, Polish, Serbo-Croatian, Latvian
indo-aryan = Hindi/Urdu, Farsi, Marathi, Punjabi, Bengali
Greek
Albanian..
Sound change
Phonological change that was once active in the language
- left mark on language
- Physiologically or psychologically motivated
- Same types of processes
Regular and systematic (for all languages and usually for all words)
Reduces intelligibility between varieties with change and those without
Assimilation (SC)
Nearby segments become more similar (properties passed to adjacent segment) extremely common, motivated by coarticulation (easier to pronounce similar segments)
Dissimilation
nearby segments become less similar, uncommon, motivated by perceptual contrast
Lenition
Consonant weakening (C are shorter, more voiced or sonorant), common when next to vowel or sonorant
Rhotacism
Alveolar sibilants becoming rhotics, more common in intervocalic contexts (s->r)
ex: latin = appeared in classical latin orthography after -is
Deletion
Loss of a segment
ex= middle eng = a->//_#
Epenthesis
Insertion of a segment
ex= middle english = /->d/n_r
Metathesis
Segments changing places
-phonotactics
-avoid undesirable combinations of segments
Great English Vowel Shift
Boundary of Middle E and Modern E
Chain shift = series of changes where a change leaves a gap to be filled by the other
Affected long vowels =
- high became vowels
- mid became high
- low became mid front
Grimm’s law
Jacob Grimm, after split of PIE (before split of Proto-Germanic)
vl stops -> vs fricatives (p/f,t/th,k/x)
vc stops -> vs stops (b/p,d/t,g/k)
breathy vc stops -> voiced stops (bh/b, dh/d, gh/g)
Syntactic ungrammaticality
Infinite number of grammatical sentences (most are unattested)
Not all sentences are SG (not to do with resulting meaning)
Lan have rules about the combination of words into sentences
Noun
M= plural, possessive
D= with determiner
Verb
M= past, progressive, 3rd singular
D= with auxiliary
Adjective
M= comparative, superlative
D= with degree word
Adverb
M=n/a
D= with degree word
Preposition
M=n/a
D= with noun phrase
Determiner
M=n/a
D= with noun
Lexical categories
Transmit meaning (N, V, adj, adv), tend to be open, easy to update or expand
Functional categories
Required by the grammar of the language, usually closed, difficult to update or expand
- det, degree words, propositions
- complementizers = that, if, whether
- conjunctions= and, but, nor
- auxiliaries = must, might, can
- pronouns = i, we, it
Constituency
Within a phrase, some words are more closely connected to each other, can vary in length, tells us something about the grammatical structure of the sentence, same string of words may exibit different structures
Substitution Test
Constituents are syntactically interchangeable when same type
if replaced by words with same syntactic properties without effecting the grammaticality or syntactic properties = both are constituents
some single words can have same syntactic properties as entire phrases (they - noun phrases, do so - verb phrases)
Movement test
some phrases can be moved to a different part of the sentence (only constituents can, often at beginning), some contintuents cannot be moved
Coordination test
Constituents of the same type can be coordinated using a coordinating conjunction (and, or)
Not all syntactic categories can be coordinated (determiners)
Syntactic trees
Hierarchical structure that represents internal relations - binary
Node - a point and/or everything benearth a point in the tree (syntactic category, always a constituent)
X-bar theory
All phrases can be described with the same structure
XP = placeholder for any type of syntactic phrase
Phrase head = obligatory nucleus of the phrase, endocentric (head always contained within)
Specifier = function word at the edge of a phrase, sometimes required, not a phrase on its own
Complement = information about the head, sometimes not required, (may be required by the particular head), a phrase on its own
Complements are structurally closer to heads than specifiers, purpose of X’ node
Phrases may have any number of complements, but typically only one specifier (multiple X’nodes possible)
Verb phrases
H= verb
S= particular types of adverbs, (never, almost, often..)
C= optional, varies
Noun phrases
H= noun
S= determiner
C= optional, varies
Adjective phrases
H= adj
S= degree word (very, quite, hardly)
C= optional, PP
Adverb phrase
H= adverb
S= degree word
No C
Prepositional phrase
H= preposition
C= NP
No specifier
Merge operation
Constituents can be nested in other constituents
must be in line with X-bar schema
Recursion?
Syntax tree shorthand
If internal structure not important, can be replaced with a shorthand triangle
Sentences
Also constituens, with X-bar schema
Tense phrase
H= Tense (Cover or modal)
S= NP
C= VP
Syntactic ambiguity
Same string of words can correspond to different syntactic structures, with different meaning that is related to the structure
Clauses
Constituent that contains a subject and a verb
Matrix = entire sentence (multiple smaller clauses)
Complementizer = word signals that a clause follows
CP structure
Complements = TPs
H= complementizer (if, whether, that)
Clauses introduced by a complementizer bear overt evidence of a CP tier
All TPs are contained in a CP tier (including matrix clauses)
Yes-no questions
Only answered with yes or no
Inversion in English
Movement of T to C position in questions
Appears in Eng yes-no questions = T moves to C, so questions contain a +Q feature (needs to be satisfied)
Movement
Can happen in different circumstances for different reasons (satisfy some sort of abstract feature)
Does not alter syntactic properties of the elements
Leaves a trace t
Deep VS surface structure
Deep = before movement
Surface = after movement
Implies two different levels of syntactic structure
Wh-questions
Require another answer
Wh-word has same syntactic properties as the information saught in the answer
Always in front of the sentence
Wh-movement
Difference in word order as result of movement = wh-words/phrases move to specifier of CP
Also exhibit inversion
Head-complement condition
Head before complement (right-branching), modals precede verbs, verbs precede objects, prepositions, relative clauses follow referent)
Head follow complement (left-branching), modals follow verbs, verbs follow objects, postpositions, relative clauses precede referent
Some languages exibit both types of structures
The position of the specifier with respect to the head is independent
Wh-movement parameter
Wh-words move to specifier of CP (eng, spa, fr)
Wh-words do not move (mandarin)
Verb raising parameter
Raise V to T (separate from inversion T to C)
Fr = toujours is a specifier
French yes-no questions
Exhibit inversion and verb raising, so V ends up in head of C (like Eng modals)
Meaning of sentences
Sentences can be T or F
Truth conditions = state of the world under which a sentence is true
Know meaning of a sentence = knowing TC (no requirement for the sentence to be true or TC compatible with real world)
TC of one sentence may have a logical relation to the TC of another
Entailement
A sentence p entails a sentence q if when p is true q is also true = q follows from p, q does not introduce infos not contained in p
Equivalence
p is equivalent to q if p entails q and q entails p
* p and q mean the same thing
* it is impossible to construct a scenario where p would be logically different from q
Contradiction
contradicts q if when p is true q is false and when q is true p is false
* Both p and q being true would result in a paradox
Contrariety
p is contrary to q if when p is true q is false
* Both cannot be true, though both can be false
Subordination
LR between words
A is a subset of B
Equivalence (between words)
A and B are the same set
Complementarity (words)
A and B are non-overlapping and exhaustive subsets
Incompatibility (words)
A and B are non-overlapping (but not necessarily exhaustive) subsets
Presupposition
A sentence p presupposes q if p entails q regardless if p is true
Presuppositions are part of the common ground, the information shared by the speaker and listener
*Presuppositions are context-dependent
*Negating the presupposition does not negate the direction of entailment
Homonyms
words with the same spelling or the same pronunciation (also both)
Homographs
words with the same spelling but not (necessarily) the same pronunciation
Homophones
words with the same pronunciation but not (necessarily) the same spelling
Polysemes
words with more than one related meaning (almost always spelled the same)
- arise due to semantic change (one meaning is extended to refer to a related meaning)
- no vagueness (meaning partly defined by the context) = ex, adj or pronouns
Synonyms
pairs of words with very similar meanings
* True synonymy is rare and, arguably, impossible
Antonyms
pairs of words that are ‘opposite’ in some sense
*Often used informally
*Incompatible scalar adjectives: ‘tall’ vs ‘short’, ‘quick’ vs ‘slow’
*Complementary words: ‘dead’ vs ‘alive’, ‘day’ vs ‘night’
Pronouns
Context-dependent by definition (refer to salient element in the conversation, new or previously mentioned)
Grammatical properties of the pronouns give us some info about the referent (person, number, gender)
Context-dependent adjectives
Describe a value on a scale = scalar adjectives
The relevant portion of the scale depends on the noun
Implicature
Derive meaning from a sentence that is neither entailed nor presupposed
Can be violated
Cooperative principle
Contribution required by the goal of the conversation
4 maxims (Gricean)
Interpret utterance under the assumption that the speaker is being cooperative
Maxim of relevance
Be relevant to the goal of the conversation
Assume that collocutor is providing information that is related to what we are talking about
If info appears irrelevant on the surface, we try to think of a scenario where it would be relevant
Maxim of quantity
Say as much as is required by the goal of the conversation
Assume that speaker is not omitting important information
Everything that is said is construed to be relevant
Maxim of quality
Do not say what you think is false and do not say what you lack evidence for
People lie and say unsubstantiated things = subverting principles = structure of the conversation rests on the assumption that people are honest
Not-jokes
Maxim of manner
Make your contribution as clear as possible (avoid obscurity and ambiguity, bried and orderly)
Newborns
Respond differently to humain voices, preference to their parent’s voices
Perceive all acoustic contrasts as equally different
At 8months, perception becomes attuned the phonological contrasts of their language specifically (lose ability to reliably distinguish between contrasts not found in their language)
Babbling stage
6mo-12mo
develop control over their articulators (necessary for linguistic development)
lot of cross-linguistic similarities between babnling in children of different ages (language independent, no linguistically marked structures (rare phenemes are absent even if these are present in the ambient language, simple syllable structure)
Acquisition of phonemes
Vowels before C, stops are first C acquired
Labial > alveolars> velars>alveopalatals (diff from language universals)
Onsets before codas
Early phonetic processes
Immature productions of particular words often reflect a child’s inability to produce certain sounds or certain phonological structures
Similar to phonological processes observed in adult grammar (underlying representation is modified by various processes, but different = ungrammatical even by children themselves, often sporadic (non-regular) in their application)
Syllable deletion
Stressed syllables are more prosodically prominent than unstressed syllables, so deleted from the output (particularly in the middle of the word)
Syllable simplification
CV is best syllable shape (complex onsets and codas are avoided, codas are avoided altogether)
Syllable structure repaires through deletion (the more sonorant element is deleted)
Stopping
Affect properties of segements rather than individual segments
obstruent ->stops
Fronting
consonant -> alveolar
Gliding
liquid -> glide
Denasalization
consonant ->oral
Assmiliation (Children)
Common cross-linguistically (common in children’s speech)
Long distance place assimilation
Vc obstruents are more common in the speech of children than vs obstruents - due to assimilation in voicing to the following vowel/sonorant (lenition)
Vocabulary development
18mo = around 50 words
between 1,5-6yo = vocabulary acquired rapidly (around 14k words by 6yo)
lot of variation between children
lot of similarity between languages
general trends = nouns first, words with concrete meanings before words with abstract meanings, lexical items before functional items
Acquiring new words
Difficult task (world full to objects and properties, natural phenomena are gradient and not clearly delineated, many words are not observable phenomena)
several assumption that children tend to make when acquiring the meaning of a new word
Overextension
the acquired meaning is more general than the intended meaning
*Overuse of type assumption or basic level assumption
-Some evidence that the child is aware of the mistake and that overextension is a strategy to compensate for limited vocabulary
*Once the child acquires the intended target, they modify the original meaning
Underextension
the acquired meaning is more specific than the intended meaning
*Underuse of type assumption and basic level assumption
Whole object assumption
the word refers to the whole object
Type assumption
refers to a type of thing
Basic level assumption
refers to objects that are alike in basic ways
Morphological overgeneralization (3stages)
1- words are memorized whole (no evidence of morphology)
2- inflectional morphology overgeneralized (errors not found in adult speech, strong evidence of morphology, no irregular morphology yet)
3- adult-like morphology
One word stage
1-1,5yo
one word used to convert an entire utterance, typically the most informative word in the utterance is used
Two word stage
1.5-2yo
limited number of sentential patterns (N+V, N+N)
almost complete absence of functional items
Telegraphic stage
2-2.5yo
longer sentences
some functional items and inflectional morphology still missing
Rapid development after the telegraphic stage = syntactic movement acquired later on
When you speak about yourself
Speech to carry info about the meaning, but also information about the speaker (linguistic features as members of a particular speech community, called indexes)
Indexes are subconscious or used consciously to build speaker identity
Ex= creaky voice/vocal fry (danish for info, english for indexical information (young, female, lower level of education, friendly, casual..))
Free variation
allophony not conditioned by phonological
environment
* Random variation from the perspective of phonology
* No variation is truly free or random
* Sociolinguistic factors (variety, who, what is situation, mood, blood-alcohol level…)
English unreleased stops
p¬, t¬,k¬ = no release following the stop, complete silence
in eng = vs stops in free-variation with unreleased stops in word-final position (otherwise, always released = sometimes released at the end, depends largely on sociolinguistic factors)
Speech community
a group of speakers who share sociolinguistic norms about language use
* Speakers sound like the people they speak to
* Pockets of similar sounding speakers develop over time
* Speech communities form across several salient sociological dimensions: (Geography, Age, Socio-economic class, Ethnicity, Gender, Sexual orientation
* Features that are prescriptively incorrect are often part of a stigmatized speech community
* Reminder: prescriptive norms are social in origin not linguistic
* Even within a speech community, the grammar of every speaker is unique
* Everyone speaks their own idiolect
Dialect
geographically separate mutually intelligible speech variety
* Cockney, Newfie, Scots, New Zealand… all dialects of English
Accent
phonetic component of a dialect
* Outside of linguistics: the pronunciation of a non-standard or non-local
variety
* In linguistics: all dialects are associated with an accent
* Everyone has an accent
Geographic separation is linguistic separation
* The farther someone is, the harder it is to communicate with them
* Dialects eventually become languages as mutual intelligibility decreases over
time
Variation over time
Speakers of different ages belong to different speech communities
* Even in the same dialect, older speakers do not sound like younger speakers
* Assumption: individuals generally do not alter their speech over time
* Once you finish acquiring your native language as a teen, your speech variety
becomes less malleable
* 60 year-olds today roughly sound like 20 year-olds 40 years ago
* The assumption is mostly but not completely true
* The speech of older speakers is still a little bit malleable, but noticeably less so
Real time study
Measuring the same variable at different
points in time
* Accurate but extremely time-consuming
Apparent time study
Measuring the same variable at one
point in time across different age groups
* Some error
* Differences in age groups reflect past
(and future!) trends
- Older speakers will eventually
disappear - Replaced by young speakers
Overt prestige
when linguistic features associate the speaker with
a high socio-economic class
* Often correlated with the standard dialect or prescriptive notions
Covert prestige
when non-standard linguistic features associate the
speaker with a desired but non-standard speech community
* Dialectal features
* Makes one sound local and not foreign
* Features of non-standard varieties
* Makes one sound worldly and casual
Variation and class
Linguistic prestige is correlated with
socioeconomic class
* Linguistic prestige is also correlated
with social situation
* Official situations or situations where the
feature is more salient
* Increased articulatory effort goes to
increasing linguistic prestige
- Speakers just below the highest strata
of society overcompensate - Use more prestigious features than those
in the highest strata in official or salient
situation
Class and gender
Algonquin
Grouped with Witot and Yurok languages as Algic
Cree, Ojibwe, Blackfoot, Mohican
Around 150k people across southern canada and US
Na-Dene
Only one with relative in Eurasia (Dene-Yeniseian language family)
Navajo, Dogrib, Chipewyan
Around 20k speakers in NW canada and Southern UN
Eskimo-Aleut
Inuktitut, Greenlandic, Aleut
Around 40k speakers in Nothern and NE Canada, Alaska and Greenland
Siouan
Canadian prairies and US MidWest
Salishan
British Columbia and Washington state
Wakashan
Western BC and Vancouver Island
Tsimshianic
N BC
Iroquoian
Around Great Lakes region (heavily endangered)
And more in US, other parts in North America and in South America
Language isolates of Canada
A language with no known relatives (Basque, Korean..)
Haida = in NBC
Ktunaxa = SE BC
Lang of Canada Phonology
Algonquin = simple C and V inventories
West Coast = complex C inventories
Labial segments = less common in Indigenous lang of NA (some lack them, mostly rare)
Clusivity
Pronouns/verbs inflected for clusivity
Inclusive we = speaker + listener + third parties
Exclusive we = speaker + third parties only
Marked by inflectional morphology (Algonquin, Iroquoian, Siouan, Wakashan)
Also in languages outside of the Americas (Georgian, Tagalog, Ainu)
Proximate
Nearby of salient in the conversation
Obviative
Distant or not salient in the convo, known as 4th person
Many Algonquin languages and Ktunaxa have a separate morpheme for the obviative
