Final Exam - Weeks 9 & 10

Question 1

There are 4 different aspects of the trustworthiness of a qualitative study According to Lincoln and Guba, what are they?

Answer 1

• Credibility: confidence in the “truth” of the findings
• Transferability: showing that the findings have applicability in other contexts
• Dependability: showing that the findings are consistent and could be repeated
• Confirmability: a degree of neutrality or the extent to which the findings of a study are shaped by the respondents and not researcher bias, motivation, or interest.

Question 2

Trustworthiness strategies are the responsibility of the _________________ in designing, conducting and publishing qualitative research.

Answer 2

Researcher(s).

Question 3

There are specific things that may be reported in studies that will help you to critique them as a clinician. Name some examples of what you might look for.

Answer 3

Self-declaration and bracketing: self-declaration is a process by which the researcher explicitly acknowledges any potential limitations, weaknesses, or biases in their study. This can be done by including a statement in the paper that describes any issues or concerns with the study design, sample size, data collection or analysis, or other aspects of the research. Self-declaration is an important part of scientific communication because it promotes transparency and helps readers to evaluate the validity and reliability of the research findings. Bracketing is a technique that is often used in qualitative research to acknowledge and manage the biases of the researcher. It involves the researcher setting aside their preconceptions and assumptions about the phenomenon under study and bracketing them, or putting them aside, during the data collection and analysis process. This allows the researcher to approach the data with an open and unbiased mindset, and to more accurately capture the experiences and perspectives of the participants.

Reflexivity: refers to the process of reflecting on and acknowledging the role of the researcher in shaping the research process and outcomes. It involves being aware of the potential biases, assumptions, and preconceptions that the researcher brings to the study, and examining how these may influence the research process and the interpretation of the data. The goal of reflexivity is to promote transparency, rigor, and validity.

Question 4

____________________ is particularly important in qualitative research, where the researcher’s subjective interpretation of the data plays a critical role in shaping the findings. However, _____________ can also be relevant in quantitative research, where the researcher’s choice of methods, measures, and statistical analyses can impact the results.

Answer 4

Reflexivity.

Question 5

Researchers can use a variety of strategies to self-declare in their research papers, including:

Answer 5

Acknowledging limitations: Researchers can identify potential limitations in their study design, sample size, data collection or analysis, or other aspects of the research, and describe how these limitations may have impacted the results.

Describing biases: Researchers can acknowledge potential biases or assumptions that may have influenced their approach to the study, and describe how they attempted to minimize or address these biases.

Providing context: Researchers can provide contextual information about the study, such as the social, cultural, or historical factors that may have influenced the results, in order to help readers understand the broader implications of the findings.

Including reflexivity: Researchers can include a reflexive component in their research, such as a section in the paper that describes the researcher’s personal reflections on the research process and the potential impact of their positionality on the findings.

Discussing alternative explanations: Researchers can consider alternative explanations for the results of their study, and discuss how these alternatives may have impacted the findings.

Question 6

Adherence and structural credibility are two important aspects of the credibility of a researcher in the context of research studies. Explain both.

Answer 6

Adherence refers to the extent to which the researcher follows established research procedures, guidelines, and ethical standards in conducting the study. This includes obtaining informed consent from participants, ensuring confidentiality and anonymity of data, using appropriate methods and measures, and analyzing and interpreting the data accurately. Adherence is important because it ensures that the study is conducted in a consistent and rigorous manner, and that the results are valid and reliable.

Structural credibility, on the other hand, refers to the researcher’s qualifications, experience, and reputation in the field of study. This includes factors such as the researcher’s education, training, and professional affiliations, as well as their previous research publications and collaborations. Structural credibility is important because it establishes the researcher’s expertise and authority in the field, and can influence how their work is received and evaluated by peers and stakeholders.

Question 7

In qualitative studies, the sampling process typically continues until…

Answer 7

In qualitative studies, the sampling process typically continues until data saturation is reached. Data saturation is the point at which the researcher has collected enough data to fully explore and understand the phenomenon of interest, and where the addition of new data is unlikely to yield new insights or perspectives.

Question 8

The goal of qualitative sampling is to identify and recruit participants who can provide rich and diverse perspectives on the phenomenon under study, true or false?

Answer 8

True.

Question 9

Explain purposive sampling.

Answer 9

Selecting participants in accordance to the needs of the study, all schools of inquiry.

Question 10

A qualitative sampling process may involve ______________ sampling which involves selecting participants based on specific criteria that are relevant to the research question, or _____________ sampling, which involves identifying initial participants and then using their networks to identify additional participants.

Answer 10

Purposive

Snowball

Question 11

Explain maximum variation sampling:

Answer 11

Purposefully selecting participants who represent a wide range of perspectives or experiences related to the phenomenon under study. The goal of this sampling method is to maximize the variation in the sample in order to capture a diverse range of perspectives and experiences related to the phenomenon of interest.

Question 12

If a researcher is studying the experiences of immigrants in a particular city, they may use ___________________ sampling to select participants who represent a range of ages, genders, cultural backgrounds, and immigration status. By selecting participants who represent a wide range of variation across these factors, the researcher can capture a diverse range of perspectives and experiences related to the phenomenon of interest.

Answer 12

maximum variation sampling.

Question 13

Explain a homogenous sample.

Answer 13

A group of participants who share similar characteristics, traits or experiences that are relevant to the research question. Homogenous samples are often used in research studies to reduce variability and increase precision of the results.

Question 14

If a researcher is studying the effects of a new medication on a specific medical condition, they may recruit a ______________________ sample of participants who have been diagnosed with that condition. By selecting a ______________ sample, the researcher can minimize the influence of other variables that may affect the outcome of the study, such as age, gender, or other medical conditions.

Answer 14

Homogenous.

Question 15

Explain theoretical sampling.

Answer 15

Involves purposefully selecting participants based on emerging theoretical concepts or ideas that emerge from the data collection process. The goal of theoretical sampling is to develop and refine theoretical ideas or concepts based on the data that is collected during the research process.

Question 16

__________________ sampling is typically used in grounded theory studies, which aim to develop theories or conceptual models based on the data collected during the research process. In a grounded theory study, the researcher collects data through interviews, observations, or other methods, and then analyzes the data to identify patterns, themes, and theoretical concepts. As the researcher identifies these concepts, they use _______________ sampling to select additional participants who can provide further insight into the emerging theory or concept.

Answer 16

Theoretical sampling.

Question 17

If a researcher is studying the experiences of individuals who have recently immigrated to a new country, they may begin by purposefully selecting participants who represent a range of ages, genders, cultural backgrounds, and immigration status. As they analyze the data, they may identify emerging concepts such as “cultural identity” or “social support.” They would then use __________________ sampling to select additional participants who can provide further insight into these concepts, such as individuals who have experienced challenges in integrating into the local community or those who have had positive experiences with social support networks.

Answer 17

Theoretical sampling.

Question 18

Details that are provided on HOW participants were recruited can help the reader, appraiser and potential user of the knowledge how?

Answer 18

To feel confident in the trustworthiness of the study - for both credibility and confirmability.

Question 19

How is sampling linked to saturation and part of moving toward triangulation is some qualitative studies?

Answer 19

Saturation = the point in the research process when new data no longer adds significant new information or insights to the emerging themes or concepts. Triangulation = the use of multiple sources of data or methods to verify the findings of a study.

The selection of participants in the study is critical to ensure that the data collected is relevant to the research question and is rich in detail and depth. As the researcher collects data, they may find that they are hearing the same information or perspectives repeatedly, and that no new insights are emerging. This is an indication that saturation has been reached, and further data collection may not add significant value to the study.

A researcher may use interviews, observation, and document analysis to collect data on a particular phenomenon. By using multiple sources of data, the researcher can verify the the findings of the study to ensure that they are not influenced by any biases or limitations of a single data source.

Question 20

The goal of ____________ sampling is to refine the emerging concepts and theories by selecting participants who can provide new insights or perspectives that have not yet been explored.

Answer 20

Theoretical.

Question 21

Use of triangulation and sampling demonstrates which trustworthiness criteria?

Answer 21

Confirmability.

Question 22

Use of audits, peer review, and description demonstrate which trustworthiness criteria?

Answer 22

Dependability.

Question 23

In a focus group you do not want to use questions that invite lengthy individual stories. Ask questions that invite debate and reflection instead. You as a researcher are seeking ____________________ among participants.

Answer 23

Cross-talk.

Question 24

_________________ in research refers to using multiple datasets, methods, theories and/or investigators to address a research question. It is a strategy that can help enhance the validity and credibility of findings.

Answer 24

Triangulation.

Question 25

________________ research involves the collection and analysis of numerical data. _____________ research considers narrative or experiential data.

Answer 25

Quantitative and Qualitative.

Question 26

___________________ research refers to research that integrates both qualitative and quantitative data within a single study.

Answer 26

Mixed methods.

Question 27

Mixed methods research is conducted for a variety of reasons, name some.

Answer 27

Corroboration (triangulation), complementarity, expansion, practicality.

Question 28

Explain how mixed methods research can provide complementarity.

Answer 28

Mixed methods research can provide a more complete understanding of a research question by combining the strengths of both qualitative and quantitative methods. Qualitative methods are often better suited to exploring complex phenomena in depth, while quantitative methods can provide a broader understanding of trends and patterns.

Question 29

A researcher may be interested in exploring the impact of a new teaching method on student learning outcomes. In the initiation stage, the researcher may have limited information on the teaching method and its impact on student learning outcomes. By using a _________________ approach, the researcher can collect quantitative data on student test scores, as well as qualitative data on student and teacher perceptions of the new teaching method. This can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the impact of the teaching method on student learning outcomes.

Answer 29

mixed methods

Question 30

The research problems that are best suited to mixed methods designs are those in which…

Answer 30

multiple perspectives on the research problem may be able to provide a more detailed understanding than could be obtained from a single perspective.

Question 31

If the title of a research study includes “integrated”, “triangulated”, “combined”, the study is most likely what design?

Answer 31

Mixed methods.

Question 32

What are the 3 basic designs of mixed methods studies?

Answer 32

• Convergent design (concurrent design)
• Explanatory sequential design
• Exploratory sequential design

Question 33

In explanatory sequential design, _______________ occurs first and ________________ occurs second.

Answer 33

1. quantitative
2. qualitative

Question 34

In exploratory sequential design, ________________ occurs first and ________________occurs second.

Answer 34

1. qualitative
2. quantitative

Question 35

Convergent design involves collecting quantitative and qualitative in what order?

Answer 35

Simultaneously.

Question 36

The purpose of convergent study design is to…

Answer 36

to obtain different but complementary data to answer a single research question.

Question 37

In convergent study design, the priority of qualitative data and quantitative data is equal, true or false?

Answer 37

True.

Question 38

In explanatory sequential design, what order is data collected in?

Answer 38

1. Quantitative
2. Qualitative

Question 39

What is the most popular type of mixed methods design in educational research?

Answer 39

Explanatory sequential.

Question 40

In explanatory sequential design, the priority is placed on qualitative data collection (the study is qualitative dominant), true or false?

Answer 40

False! In explanatory sequential design, the priority is placed on quantitative data collection (the study is quantitative dominant).

Question 41

Qualitative data are collected to explain the quantitative findings.

Answer 41

Explanatory sequential design.

Question 42

Quantitative data frame qualitative data collection.

Answer 42

Explanatory sequential design.

Question 43

In exploratory sequential design, what order is data collected in?

Answer 43

1. Qualitative
2. Quantitative

Question 44

Quantitative data builds on qualitative findings to provide generalizability.

Answer 44

Exploratory sequential design.

Question 45

Qualitative data frame quantitative data collection.

Answer 45

Exploratory sequential design.

Question 46

Exploratory sequential design is _____________ dominant.

Answer 46

qualitative

Question 47

How is data analyzed in a mixed methods project?

Answer 47

The two data types are analyzed separately. Then findings from both studies are compared, contrasted and combined.

Question 48

Explain the integrative strategy in mixed methods research.

Answer 48

Involves combining quantitative and qualitative data in a way that allows for the two types of data to complement each other and provide a more comprehensive understanding of the research question. The goal of the integrative strategy is to use both types of data to create a more complete picture of the phenomenon under study.

Question 49

Explain the use of the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT).

Answer 49

The MMAT is a tool used to assess the quality of mixed methods research studies. The MMAT consists of two main sections: the first section assesses the methodological quality of the study (quality of the quantitative and qualitative components of the study separately), while the second section assesses the integration of qualitative and quantitative data.

Question 50

Explain participatory action research.

Answer 50

Participatory action research is an approach to research that involves active participation of stakeholders in all aspects of the research process. It is a collaborative and democratic process that seeks to address social issues and create positive change in the community.

Question 51

Participatory action research (PAR) is typically conducted in ___________, which involve identifying a problem or issue, gathering data through various methods (such as interviews, focus groups, or surveys), analyzing the data, and taking action to address the issue.

Answer 51

Cycles.

Question 52

In PAR, the research process is participatory in that…

Answer 52

stakeholders are involved in every stage of the research process, from identifying the problem to analyzing the data and implementing solutions.

Question 53

The key principles of participatory action research include:

Answer 53

• Collaboration: collaborative partnerships are formed between researchers and community members, with a focus on building trust and relationships.
• Empowerment: involves giving stakeholders the knowledge, skills, and tools they need to be active participants in the research process and to take action on the findings.
• Social justice: a core value of PAR, with a focus on addressing issues of inequality and creating positive social change.

Question 54

This approach to research is particularly useful in situations where there is a need to address complex social issues that cannot be fully understood through traditional research methods.

Answer 54

Participatory Action Research

Question 55

PAR draws on the paradigms of _____________ and _______________.

Answer 55

Critical social theory and constructivism.