- Cells losing control of their cell cycle, repeatedly divides -Neoplasm = clump of same mutated cells -telomerase enzyme = divides indefinitely - Tumor = mass of cells - Oncogene = mutation that causes tumor development - Proto-oncogene = normal gene converts to an oncogene

- XY chromosomes - determine sex

- Human body cells - contains 46 chromosomes (diploid)

- Diploid 46 chromosomes, associated with mitosis - Haploid 23 chromosomes, associated with meiosis

Final Exam Study Guide Flashcards by Quiera Haskins

Why it is necessary for mitosis to result in identical daughter cells

identical - same cell & function

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Events that occur in each phase of the cell cycle

cell growth and cell division that produces two new daughter cells
Interphase = cell grows & DNA replicates

(G1 - cell active, little change)
(S - DNA replicated, sister chromatids)
(G2 - prepares to divide)

Mitotic = cell divides into two new identical daughter cells

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Events that occur in each stage of mitosis

4 stages
Prophase = chromsomes condense, crossing over occurs
Metaphase = chromosomes align along metaphase plate
Anaphase = sister chromatids split apart, opposite ends of cell
Telophase = nuclear envelope forms 2

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Cytokinesis in an animal cell vs in a plant cell

cytoplasm divides into two new daughter cells

A - cleavage furrow
P - cell plate

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Cancer

Cells losing control of their cell cycle, repeatedly divides

-Neoplasm = clump of same mutated cells

-telomerase enzyme = divides indefinitely

Tumor = mass of cells
Oncogene = mutation that causes tumor development
Proto-oncogene = normal gene converts to an oncogene

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Explain what causes a cell to grow uncontrollably

improper replication of DNA during the S phase
gene mutation

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Sex chromosomes

XY chromosomes
determine sex

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Autosomes

Non-sex chromosome
- first 22 chromosomes
- homozygous

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Somatic Cells

Human body cells
contains 46 chromosomes (diploid)

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Gametes

Haploid sex cell - egg / sperm

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Diploid vs Haploid

Diploid 46 chromosomes, associated with mitosis
Haploid 23 chromosomes, associated with meiosis

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Relationship between meiosis and sexual reproduction

Meiosis produce sex cells that join to form zygote during sexual reproduction

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Events that occur in each stage of meiosis

Meiosis I:
- separation of homologous pairs

PI - recombinant chromosomes

MI - align on the metaphase plate

AI - homologous chromosomes are separated

TI - nuclear envelope forms

Meiosis II:
- separation of sister chromatids

PII - nuclear envelope breaks down

MII - align metaphase plate

AII - separated sister chromatids move toward opposite poles of the cell

TII - Individual chromatids, nuclear envelope forms

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Similarities and differences between mitosis and meiosis

Similarity - Both are preceded by DNA replicated in S phase

Difference - Meiosis = 4 haploid daughter cells / Mitosis = 2 identical daughter cells

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Self-fertilization vs cross fertilization

Self = fusion of sex cells by the same individual (flowers)

Cross = two different true-breeding traits together

Genes - heritable traits

Alleles - variants of a gene - determine trait

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True-breeding

offspring identical to the parent

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Heterozygous vs homozygous

Homozygous = two identical alleles
Heterozygous = Different alleles, One dominant, one recessive

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Phenotypic ratio versus Genotypic ratio

Phenotype - ratios of visible characteristics / 3 green : 1 yellow

Genotypic - ratio of different genotype / 1 (YY) :2 (Yy) :1 (yy)

P generation - first generation in a cross

F1 generation - offspring of the parental generation

F2 generation - offspring from F1 self fertilizing or fertilized

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Pedigrees

chart that shows trait or health condition through generations

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Mendel’s law of segregation

Genes segregate equally into gametes

one allele for each gene

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law of independent assortment

Genes do not influence each other

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Why linked genes do not always follow Mendel’s law of independent assortment

alleles tend to transmit together not independently

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Explain how genetic variation in a species occurs, including mutations and inheritance patterns

sexual reproduction = new combinations of genes
Mutations = change dna sequence

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Chemical compositions and structures of DNA and RNA

DNA:
- nucleotides =deoxyribose (5-carbon sugar), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base

double helix

Bases - Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine

RNA:
- nucleotides = nitrogenous base, ribose (a five-carbon sugar), and a phosphate group

single stranded
Bases - Adenine, Uracil, Guanine, Cytosine

Basic structure of a chromosome

chromatin that contains DNA,

Chromatin vs chromosomes

Chromatin - DNA and protein , chromosomes' building material Chromosomes - chromatin that contains DNA

Homologous chromosomes vs sister chromatids

Sister chromatids - two identical copies of each chromosome , after DNA replication Homologous chromosomes - matched pairs of chromosomes

Autosomes vs sex chromosomes

A - non-sex chromosomes - first 22 pair chromosomes - homologous S - nonhomologous chromsomes, X & Y

Events that occur during each step of DNA replication, transcription, and translation

Replication - Base pairs A&T, G&C - occurs during the synthesis phase, or S phase, of the cell cycle, before the cell enters mitosis or meiosis Transcription - prokaryotes and eukaryotes perform the same - occurs in three main stages: initiation, elongation, and termination. Eukaryotes - occurs in the nucleus Prokaryotes - occurs in the cytoplasm

gene regulation in eukaryotic cells

can occur at all stages

Recombinant DNA and explain the processes used to create recombinant DNA

DNA fragments by molecular cloning

Advantages of gene therapy

cure heritable diseases.

Contributions of Lamarck, Darwin, Lyell, and Wallace to the theory of evolution

Darwin and wallace - natural selection Lyell-gradual change in species Lamarck - Inheritance of acquired characteristics

Observations and deductions that Darwin generated to account for natural selection

- characteristics inherited - resources for survival and reproduction limited - variations are inherited

Natural Selection

- population possess beneficial traits - more likely to survive and reproduce

List, in order, the four distinct ages

Precambrian eon - fossils Paleozoic era - meteor strikes and volcanics eruptions (cambrian explosion) Mesozoic era - evolution and diversification the dinosaurs Cenozoic era - mammals and birds became prominent, ice age

Describe how evolution occurs

by natural selection characteristics change - new species arise.

Homologous vs analogous structures

H - they share similarities despite differences A - similar in function and appearance, but no common ancestor.

Prezygotic and postzygotic reproductive barriers

Pre - prevent mating Post - sterile hybrids

Define the biological species concept and describe the process of speciation

- formation of two species from one original species - impossible for the two new populations to interbreed

Allopatric vs sympatric speciation

Allopatric - other homelands - geographic separation Sympatric - non-geographic barrier, one population into two

Describe directional, disruptive, and stabilizing selections

Dir - one extreme phenotype Dis - two or more opposing phenotypes, creating a balance Stab - intermediate phenotypes favored, extreme phenotypes not successful

Microevolution vs macroevolution

Micro - changes within one population (natural selection) Macro - Large-scale evolutionary (creation of new species/mass extinctions)

Speciation and non-branching evolution

Non-branching = significant changes by adapting to their environment - no new species Speciation = creation of new species

Evolutionary patterns of gradual evolution vs punctuated equilibrium

G.E - evolve very slowly over time P.E - species have appeared suddenly then unchanged until extinction

Explain the concept of exaptation

use of a trait for a purpose other than what the trait was evolved for

Sexual selection and its impacts on populations

certain traits are more likely to find a mate

Describe taxonomy and biological classification

Tax - identification and naming of living organisms Bio - groups based on similar characteristics

Early methods of biological classification to modern classification techniques

Went from 2 - to 5 - to currently 3 kingdoms Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya

Spontaneous generation vs biogenesis

S - life arise from nonliving matter B - could only come from preexisting life

Summarize the four steps hypothesized to have led to the origin of life

- Organic Molecules - Metabolism - Genetic Material - Cell membrane

Distinguish between the 3 domains

B- A- E-

Explain the endosymbiont hypothesis to describe the evolution of eukaryotes

eukaryotic cells could have derived from prokaryotic cells prokaryotes engulfed bacteria and lived together forming eukaryotes

Identify the major categories of protists

Plant Animal Fungi

Describe how fungi obtain nutrition, grow, reproduce, and develop

- decompose organic materials ex : dead trees, animals, waste - environments = moist and slightly acidic, dark or light places fungal spores distribute by wind or animal

Describe 5 main fungal groups

Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Glomeromycota

List ecological roles of and human interactions with fungi

E: - decomposers - parasitic - mutualisms H: industrial / commercial applications - antibiotics

Describe the basic structure and function of the 3 types of viruses

Bacteriophages - inject DNA into the bacteria Plant - RNA Animal - DNA, viral envelope

How viruses are similar to but also different from living organisms

- have genetic program - no cells