FINAL EXAM REVIEW

Question 1

Participatory Democracy

Answer 1

• This helps expand meaningful dialogue and problem solving between groups
• It is important to have communication between groups of people to reach a consensus

Question 2

Constructivist Approach

Answer 2

• Knowledge is created by learners, not transmitted

- Better to create knowledge in the classroom than simply memorizing information

Question 3

Reflective Practitioner

Answer 3

• Reflection is important for the educative experience and for the development of civic responsibility

Question 4

Participatory Research

Answer 4

• A community-based action research model

Question 5

Benefits of Diversity

Answer 5

• Democracy allowed increased communication, which would allow for creative and diverse dialogue. Different perspectives would allow complex problems to be solved so people can stop seeing the same things. Authentic communication is the only way for these problems to be solved.

Question 6

Social Mobility

Answer 6

Ability to achieve greater economic changes from one generation to the next

Question 7

Social Justice

Answer 7

The ability of people to reach their full potential within the societies in which they reside

Question 8

Development

Answer 8

Development implies qualitative change: change from being a child who can think only concretely to being an adolescent who can also think abstractly

Question 9

Growth

Answer 9

Growth implies quantitative change: change of being a few inches taller since one’s height was last measured

Question 10

Sensitive Periods

Answer 10

Times during development in which we are either particularly ripe for learning because an experience at that time will have its peak effect on our development or time when we are especially harmed by adversity

Question 11

Stages of child and adolescent development

Answer 11

Prenatal: conception to birth
The transition from fertilized egg to the newborn in nine months
Infancy and toddlerhood: birth to 2 years
Dramatic physical changes, accompanied by cognitive and emotional changes
Early childhood: 2 years to 6 years
Mastery of motor skills, language development, development of relationships with peers outside the home
Middle childhood: 6 years to 12 years
Exposure to organized sports, growth of logical thought, development of self-esteem facets
Adolescence: 12 years to 20-25 years
Puberty, how teens think about the world around them, how to define identity

Question 12

Physical Domain

Answer 12

Biological changes from birth to adolescence:

Increases in neuron connections within the brain, growth of bones, appearance of secondary sex characteristics

Question 13

Cognitive Domain

Answer 13

Cognitive development domain: aspects of thinking and language development
Babbling, learning the alphabet, greater attention span, acquiring a new language

Question 14

Emotional Domain

Answer 14

Emotional domain: social and emotional changes

Attachment, relationships with peers, regulating emotions, developing identity

Question 15

Between-stage relationship example

Answer 15

Infants who were breastfed for more than 6 months show greater cognitive outcomes later on

Question 16

Pyschoanalytic Theories

Answer 16

When behavior is driven by unconscious emotional needs and early life experiences

Question 17

Freud

Answer 17

Troubles are related to conflicts regarding the expression of pleasure inherent in the body, such as sexuality: psychosexual development
Oral stage: first year of life
Oral issues are a child’s primary focus, like feeding and putting things in the mouth
Anal stage: ages 1 to 3
Elimination of waste becomes a central issue (potty-training)
Phallic stage: ages 3 to 6
Masturbation is an impulsive act; children are taught not to reveal private parts in public
Latency stage: school years until puberty
Sexual issues recede, other achievements are more important
Genital stage: puberty through adulthood
Sexual expression with another person with whom there is emotional intimacy

Question 18

Erikson

Answer 18

8 stages

corresponding to the entire lifespan instead of childhood and adolescence

Question 19

Learning Theories

Answer 19

observing aspects of physical, cognitive, and emotional development, as well as helping people change problems within such

Question 20

Pavlov

Answer 20

Best known for classical conditioning:
- the process by which two events are paired repeatedly so that eventually, presenting only one event can bring about the same result as presenting the other event. For example, classical conditioning can help explain why some students associate school with anxiety.

Question 21

Skinner

Answer 21

Best known for operant conditioning:

- reinforcement or punishment of a behavior can increase or decrease the frequency of it

Question 22

Bandura

Answer 22

Social Learning Theory

learning through imitation and observation

Question 23

Piaget

Answer 23

Adaptation: a process by which our mental structures evolve to better fit our experiences
- Assimilation: incorporate new info into existing knowledge (stabilizes scheme)
- Accommodation: change what we know in the face of new info (changes scheme)
Schemes: mental structures that organize these experiences
Equilibrium: more assimilation than accommodation takes place
Disequilibrium: more accommodation than assimilation

Question 24

Information-Processing Theory

Answer 24

The mind is like a computer: receives input, processes it, produces output
Illustrates thought processes with flowcharts
Useful for understanding how children incorrectly process social cues

Question 25

Vygotsky’s Theory

Answer 25

Sociocultural theory: social interactions with more knowledgeable individuals promote cognitive development
Guided participation: both student and tutor are actively engaged in the learning process
Scaffolding: learner’s cognitive foundation grows and they become more competent
Zone of proximal development: zone of development between what we cannot do independently and what we can do with assistance

Question 26

Ecological Systems Theory: considers how an individual interacts with and is influenced by various systems of the environment

Answer 26

Microsystem
Setting in which a person lives and interacts directly with others
Mesosystem
Connections between various microsystems
Exosystem
Environments that influence a person, even though the person typically doesn’t participate in these environments
Macrosystem
General values, customs, and laws that are a part of a culture
Chronosystem
The current socio-historical context that influences whether and how each of the other systems changes over time

Question 27

Ethological & Evolutionary Theories

Answer 27

Lorenz’s Theory
Imprinting: innate behaviors become manifest after exposure to certain stimuli
Emotional development in terms of attachment
Language development during sensitive periods
Bjorklund’s Theory
Epigenesis: how genetic material is turned on and off in different contexts

Question 28

Developmental Neuroscience

Answer 28

Physical changes occur in the brain in response to social injustices, changes that then increase the risk for later adversities

Question 29

Psychoanalytic

Answer 29

Freud would say that Maria and her determination are a sign of her having completed the latency and genital period with its emphasis on work. Maria also investigated possible careers before making her final decision, despite not having many professional role models before college.

Question 30

Learning

Answer 30

Maria’s achievements may have seemed out of reach before college, but with help from professors and other students, she progressed along the zone of proximal development as she acquired skills she needed to develop into a college graduate.

Question 31

What are the three components of the Cycle of Science?

Answer 31

• Theory
• Research
• Application

Question 32

Research terms and best practices related to conducting research. Explain the following terms and concepts:

Answer 32

Theory
A description and explanation of human behavior that has been tested and retested by research studies in order to verify its claims

Hypothesis (forming the research question)
A precisely stated prediction

Data
Facts that researchers gather

Variables
Values that can differ from person to person at one point in time

Sample
A subset of the population that may or may not be representative of the entire population

Qualitative data
Characteristics we can categorize but not count or measure

Quantitative data
Numerical and describe features or qualities we can measure or count

Two types of observational methods
-Observational Methods – a researcher watches participants behave, and then records the observations in order to use them as data
Naturalistic Observation – watching individuals behave in their natural environment
Structured Observation – the researcher observes participants in a laboratory setting that has been set up for the sole purpose of observing how participants respond to it

Two types of self-report methods
Self-report Methods – participants provide their own data
Clinical Interviews – ask participants a limited number of questions, with the intent of allowing them to guide the direction the interview takes
Structured Interviews – conducted with a standard set of questions that all participants are asked, and in the same order

Physiological methods
Based upon subjects’ biological indicators

Validity
Assesses whether something is valid or claims to measure

Reliability
Assesses whether something provides about the same score each time a person is assessed with it

Question 33

Case Study Method

Answer 33

generates a narrative report of a very small group of subjects, or even one individual, as a way to explore a topic in-depth with rich detail

Question 34

Ethnographic Methods

Answer 34

draw from anthropological research that examines the similarities and differences between different cultures

Question 35

Correlational Research Studies

Answer 35

examine the way two variables are or are not related to one another

Question 36

Experimental Research Design

Answer 36

Examines the effect of one variable on another variable
Independent Variable (IV) – a treatment the researcher manipulates or administers to the participants
Dependent Variable (DV) – the outcome the researcher is interested in measuring
Experimental Group - a group that receives treatment in an experiment
Comparison Group – a group that receives an alternative treatment
Assigned Variables – variables assigned to the participants by the researcher
Naturally Occurring Variables – those over which the researcher has no control

Question 37

Cross-sectional Designs

Answer 37

a common way researchers study age differences