HIST112 Final > final exam review > Flashcards
final exam review Flashcards
Anatolia
seljuqs took it over in 1071 and until 1243 which ultimately became a part of what modern day turkey is
Hijaz
country on the western side of saudi arabia, where Mecca is located and also known as the Muslim holy land
Najd
a region of saudi arabia
persia
this became iran, which was ruled by the sassanian, parthinian and achaemenid
constantinople
capital of the byzantine empire, became modern day istanbul
Maghreb
arab west
Mashreq
the eastern part of the arab world, in west asia and eastern north africa
shari’a
islamic law that came from the quran, hadith, qiyas, and the consensus of the community aka jima
hadith
the sayings and actions of the attributed to the prophet
caliph
the political religious state compromising the muslim community and lands under its control after mohammeds death in 632, successor the prophet
Imam
a regular leader for the muslim community or mosque, he is known as a person with special abilities by the shari’a
millet
defined as a religious community, where the ottomans allowed groups of millet to govern or power themselves
devshirme
a method for procuring slaves from among adolescent male christian children from the empire’s european provinces..removed from their families and taken to istanbul, the children were converted to islam, tested and screen, and then trained for service in the empire
zionism
jewish nationalism that supports their need for a homeland in Palestine
Biography of Mohammad
Place and date of birth, death, and migration to Medina
He was born in Mecca in 570 CE, migrated to Medina in 622 CE; where he united the tribes during the blood wars & gained followers where he acted as an arbiter. He also became the first islamic leader and created an Umma or islamic community, where he passed away in 661 CE
Empires in the sixth century pre-Islamic Middle East
Names with correct spelling, and in what ways were they different from Arabia
The Byzantine Empire or Eastern Roman Empire(330-1453 CE) = orthodox christian
The Sassanian Empire(224-651 CE) = Zorastrian
Arabia was different from these cities in the way that these cities were more tribal and less centralized, where the empires had more central cities and posts, where the most centralized trading area in Arabia was Mecca.
The Islamic Expansion
What was the significance of the Islamic Expansion in shaping Islam in the long-term?
it spreads islam outside of the Arabian peninsula (made the muslim world larger) Territorial gains
change islam from being exclusively an arabian religion expanding outside of the arabian peninsula
conquest expose arab muslims to other cultures around the world and islam begins to adapts to other civilizations that it touches
in time (around 680) arabic becomes the language of govt in the umayyad empire
The main sects in Islam
The two main sects in Islam and the main differences between them in terms of belief.
Sunni - Sunni’s accept the sunnah and the historical succession of caliphs.
Shi’a - Shi’a’s believe that Ali and his descendants are the legitimate successors
Turks
The date of the appearance of Turks in the Middle East
The Turks arrived in the Middle East in the 11th century.(1071)
Empires at the height of their power in 16th century Middle East
Names with correct spelling
The Safavids & The Ottomans
Legacy of the Safavids
What were two of the most important and long-lasting legacies of the Safavids?
The safavid empire reached its height under shah abbas I (r.1588-1629)
During his rule, domestic reforms were introduced, trade with Europe grew as did political and diplomatic relations. The Safavids ruled from (1501-1722)
At the time of shah abbas’s death, isfahan had a population estimated at 400k.
The safavids are the first dynasty to introduce borders into their empire
Napoleon
When, why, and for how long did Napoleon invade and occupy Egypt?
Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1798. The invasion lasted until 1801
There are different reasons why Napoleon decided to invade egypt; one reason is Egypt’s location.
According to the historian Albert Hourani, the occupation of Egypt by Napoleon was “an incident in the war with England”.
First time - > shock to the system
-> sets a precedent
Ottomans in the Changing World of the 19th century
i). Who was Muhammad Ali and in what ways did he pose a threat to the Ottomans?
ii). When did Greece become independent and in what ways did the Greek nationalist movement pose a threat to the Ottomans?
Muhammed Ali (1805. - 1848)
May 1838- Muhammed Ali announced that he wanted to establish his own kingdom and would give the ottomans $15m.
Battle of nezhub - confrontation between ottomans and muhammed ali’s forces - ottomans defeated
Convention of london
July 1840 - that muhammed ali withdraw from syria in return for hereditary rule in egypt
Nov 1840 - the ottomans granted muhammed ali lifetime rule over egypt and sudan and established family hereditary rule over egypt. Muhammed Ali, in return, recognized the sultan as his suzerain and agreed to make a payment to the ottomans as a sign of his submission and loyalty to the ottoman state.
Greece became independent in 1831. Ways the Greek nationalist movement posed a threat to the Ottomans include the massacre of thousands of Janissaries.
The French in Algeria
The date of the French invasion of Algeria, the reasons behind it, and the shape of French
rule in Algeria.
The French invaded Algeria in 1839. The French invaded Algeria to gain more political influence in North Africa / proximity. Once the French invaded Algeria, they stayed there until 1962 for 132 years. Obviously, the shape of French rule changed in the course of these long years. The policy that impacted the shape of French rule in Algeria, most was when the French formally annexed algeria. In other words, their aim was to make Algeria into France so that as a famous saying of the time said, “The Mediterranean runs through France like the river Seine runs through Paris”.
The British in Egypt
The date of the British invasion of Egypt, the reasons behind it, and the shape that British rule took in Egypt. When did Britain grant nominal independence to Egypt, and when did they leave Egypt for good?
invaded egypt in 1882, in order for a bridge to asia and to gain more trading routes such as the suez canal, large trade routes, and more access to british india and its resources. Isma’il Pasha(grandson of Muhammed Ali) ruled: 1863-1876 -1876: egypt declares bankruptcy The Debt commision: -an international commission was established in May 1876, to supervise the payment by the egyptian government of the loans to europeans -in 1878, two controllers were appointed a part of the egyptian cabinet to supervise state revenue and expenditure -minister of france in charge of revenue - british -minister of public works in charge of expenditure - French -took over 50% of the egyptian revenue in order to pay the debt
Tanzimat
What were the tanzimat; what was the reason for the tanzimat; what was their significance, and in what ways were the tanzimat different from previous reforms?
what they were: Tanzimat - reorganization- literally translated as ‘reordering’ or ‘reorganization’ the tanzimat were a series of primarily administrative reforms that were carried out in the ottoman empire in the 19th century and which resulted in many substantial changes not only in the military but also in the civilian sectors of the empire.The Era of Tanzimat (reorganization): 1839-1876
reasons for tanzimat: -The Tanzimat period consisted of the most extensive set of reforms in 19th century Ottoman Empire
-In this period, the Ottoman Empire made every effort to keep the empire together. To do so, they introduced the new direction that they had in mind by means of the following pronouncements
1.The guarantees promising to our subjects perfect security for life, honor, and property
2. A regular system of assessing taxes
3.an equally regular system for the conscription of requisite troops and the duration of their service
significance: to preserve a crumbling ottoman empire
how they were different: Change in mindset
-idea of equality between muslims and non-muslims(secular mindset)
-mobility in society(because of change in attitude towards education and people who made it to the top)
Iran in the Nineteenth Century
Which European powers got involved in nineteenth century Iran; what were the reasons they got involved; in what ways did they interfere in the affairs of the country; what were the consequences of their interference; the two Russo-Persian wars and their consequences
-which European powers got involved in nineteenth century Iran; Russia & Britain & France
-the reasons why they got involved; they wanted to fight over varies cities in Iran, also known as the great game. where russia took cities on the caspian sea(turkestan, azerbaijan, and tajikstan). they also fought over economic reasons such as trade routes to india, and economic opportunties to iran with resources such as silk, cotton and wheat. Russia wanted to weaken iran and britain wanted iran to resist russia’s influence. The British and the Russians. The British got involved because Iran was near India and the Russians got involved because they wanted access to the Persian Gulf.
-the ways in which they interfered in the affairs of the country; they were involved in influencing the affairs of the iranian govt. where nasar al-din played off both of the countries and gained economic advantage
-the consequences of their interference; their influence and power over the countries, created a revolt within Iran where all citizens boycotted tobacco so that european influence would lessen, therefore lessening nasar al-din’s power.
-the two Russo-Persian wars and their consequences; the fourth and fifth russo-persian wars occured from 1804-1813 and 1826-1828. where they fought over territory in the caspian sea. the first war was fought over territory of georgia between russia and persia, where the first war was ended in 1813 with the treaty of golestan, where russia obtained dagestan, and northern azerbaijan. the second war was fought due to alexander I’s death and the decembrist revolt, which lead to the treaty of torkamanchay(feb 1828) where persia gave up yerevan and territory up to the aras river along with 20 million ruble indemnity.
The First World War
the dates of the First World War; the reasons why the Ottomans entered the war, and which side they fought on; the different promises made during the First World War to the different parties: what were they, why were they made, and why did they prove controversial; the new nation-states that came into being in the Middle East in the aftermath of the First World War; the new nation-states whose borders were drawn by outsiders; what were the mandates.
-the dates of the First World War; - WW1 began on july 28th, 1914
-the reasons why the Ottomans entered the war, - the ottomans joined due to an alliance w germany
-which side they fought on; - the ottomans fought alongside the central powers
-the different promises made during the First World War to the different parties: -the entente powers signed agreements saying who gets what territory if they were to win the war from the ottomans in 1915
-what were they, -
the sykes picot agreement- secret treaty between england and france dividing up the spheres of influence in Iran if they won(1916),
the balfour declaration- british promoting and routing for israel to have their homeland in Palestine(1917)
Treaty of Sevres(1920)- gave mandates for countries to take land,
Treaty of Lausanne, -
The constantinople agreement in March 1915,
husayn-mcmahon correspondence(1915-1916) - series of letters between Hussesin ibn Ali (the emir of mecca) and Sir Henry McMahon who was the british high commissioner of Egypt
the armistice of mudros(1918)- marked the defeat of the ottoman empire
-why were they made, to split up land in the ottoman empire after it was dissolved to european powers, promoting palestine to be israeli homeland, and given to european powers
-why did they prove controversial; -the balfour declaration directly contradicted the husayn mcmahon correspondence
-the new nation-states that came into being in the Middle East in the aftermath of the First World War; -palestine, jordan, israel, iraq, syria and lebanon were created
-the new nation-states whose borders were drawn by outsiders; -
palestine, jordan, israel, iraq, syria, lebanon and turkey
Britain got the mandates for Iraq, Palestine, and Transjordan;
France got the mandates for Syria and Lebanon
-what was a mandate. -To those colonies and territories which as a consequence of the last war have ceased to be under the sovereignty of the states which formerly governed them and which are inhabited by peoples not yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world, there should be applied the principle that the well-being and development of such peoples form a sacred trust of civilization and that securities for the performance of that trust should be embodied in the covenant. The best method of giving practical effect to this principle should be entrusted to advanced nations who by reason of their resources, their experience, or their geographical position can best undertake this responsibility
State-building in Turkey and Iran
The date of the establishment of the modern state of Turkey;
the new capital of the modern state of Turkey;
who were Ataturk and Reza Shah Pahlavi;
secularization measures taken by Ataturk and Reza Shah Pahlavi;
the reforms that were implemented by Ataturk and Reza Shah and which impacted women;
in what ways were their approaches to reform similar and in what ways, different.
1923, Anakara, Ataturk ruled from 1923-38, and pahlavi ruled from 1926-41, where they were the rulers of Iran and Turkey, Establishment of a secular ministry of justice (1927) and state courts where secular state officials replaced the clergy as judges (it was up to the state courts to decide which cases should be referred to religious courts and which to remain in state courts), Some of the reforms introduced under ataturk affecting women:
1924: abolished the shaira, replacing it with the swiss civil doe.
As a result:
-women got equal rights on divorce and child custody
-polygamy was outlawed
-1930: women got the vote first in municipal elections
-1933: women could become judges (there were thirteen women judges)
-1934: women got the vote in national elections
-1935: women deputies were elected to the turkish parliament
Who was Nasser and why did he emerge as a hero of the Arab world; what was the Suez Canal Crisis and what were its consequences; why did the 1952 coup d’état come to be remembered as a revolution; what is pan-Arabism; what was the UAR and how long did it last?
A military officer and an anti british sentiment and formed the group called the pre-officers, Gamal Abd al-nasser(1918-1970) Nasser came to be known for having changed the ideological course of the regime- and with defining the objectives of arab nationalism as being based on three principles” -anti-imperialism -pan-arabism -arab socialism
The British Prime Minister, Anthony Eden had to resign. The Times of London wrote on the effect of Eden’s decision to invade Egypt: “He was the last Prime Minister to believe that Britain was a Great Power and the first to confront a crisis which proved beyond doubt that she was not.”
-“many British and French nationals who had spent their entire lives in [Egypt] were expelled and their property seized. Several thousand Egypti Jews were also expelled or decided to leave because of the strong anti-Jewish sentiment aroused by the Israeli invasion.”
The coup d’etat of 1952 was planned and carried out by a group of junior military officers known as the free officers. It came to be referred to as a revolution because of all the changes that it brought about. Among them.
I) In carrying out the coup d’état, the Free Officers had wanted to end the British occupation, eliminaté feudalism, and give shape to a strong national army.
ii.) after taking power, the free officers formed the revolutionary command council (RCC) that served as part of the government that carried out the following measures:
a). exiled King Faruq (r. 1936-1952), putting an end to the institution of monarchy in Egypt, and established a republic instead
b). abolished the 1923 constitution
c). dissolved parliament, and removed the old landed urban notables that had come to dominate the Egyptian political system
d). brought the army into Egyptian politics. (The army continues to be a major actor in Egyptian politics until the present day).
e). Instituted land reform that restricted the amount of agricultural land any single individual could own. The surplus would be redistributed among the peasantry.
f). banned the Muslim Brotherhood
Pan-Arabism is a political movement emerging in the mid-to-late nineteenth century and reaching its acme in the 1960s, which advocated the political, cultural and socioeconomic unity of Arabs across the different states that emerged after decolonisation, from the Mashreq (Arab East) to the Maghreb (Arab West)
UAR- united arab republic and it lasted from 1958-61
Which European power was in charge of the Palestine Mandate; what factors led to the tensions in Palestine in the 1920s and 1930s; what was the Balfour declaration and why was it controversial; what was surprising about the recommendation of the Peel Commission in 1937?
How was the Palestine mandate different from the other mandates in the Middle East? When did the state of Israel come into being? When was the first Arab-Israeli war? What were the consequences of the 1967 war in terms of the new territories that Israel took over?
British
The two major outbreaks of violence that occurred in the interwar years in the Mandate were in large part a result of the consequences of immigration and land purchases/ transfers:
-The Wailing Wall Disturbances of 1929
The Great Revolt of 1936-1939
“The violence that swept through Palestine in spring and summer
1936..was set in motion on April 15 when an armed Arab band robbed a bus and killed a Jewish passenger; the following evening Haganah retallated by killing two Arab farmers. These incidents provoked both communities into mass demonstrations and mob attacks against each other. In an attempt to channel the popular discontent into an effective weapon agalnst Britain and the Zionists, local Arab resistance committees declared a general strike on April 16, 1936. The strike was to continue until Britain granted the Arabs’ demands for restrictions on immigration and land sales and the establishment of a democratic government..” (Cleveland, P. 244)
However, Britain tried to crush the rebellion, resulting in the deaths of
1000 Arabs and 80 Jews.. (In total, however], the Great Revolt took a heavy toll: More than 3000 Arabs, 2000 Jews, and 600 British were killed.” (Cleveland, pp. 244- 245)
it was the british declaration for a jewish homeland in palestine, it directly violated the husayn mcmahon correspondence
The report admitted that the mandate was unworkable because Jewish and Arab objectives in Palestine were incompatible, and it proposed that Palestine be partitioned into three zones: an Arab state, a Jewish state, and a neutral territory containing the holy places. Although the British government initially accepted these proposals, by 1938 it had recognized that such partitioning would be infeasible, and it ultimately rejected the commission’s report.
due to the fact that it contained multiple holy places and was a conflict of interest for many countries
May 14th, 1948
May 15th, 1948 - March 10th,1949
- Occupied territories (while to begin with, the idea among official Israeli political circles was that much of this occupied land could be returned in exchange for peace agreements with Arab states, after 1977, establishing Israeli settlements in the occupied territories became official policy in the Likud government. For more on this change in thinking and the rationale behind the settlement policy adopted after 1977, see Cleveland, pp. 345-346).
- Disillusionment if not end to the idea of pan-Arabism
- PLO as an activist organization
- Consciousness of what it meant to be a Palestinian
Women in the Middle East
What is Islamic feminism, and what is the difference between Islamic feminism and secular
feminism in the context of the Middle East?
What are some of the common misconceptions associated with women in the Middle East, and how can they be countered?
The core idea of Islamic feminism is the full equality of all Muslims, male and female alike, in both the public and private spheres.Islamic feminism is more radical than secular feminism which called for equal rights in the public sphere but complimentary rights in the private sphere.
1. women not being able to drive in the Middle East (ONLY in Saudi
Arabia until 2018)
2. women’s dress (modesty) (compulsory hijab ONLY in Iran and
Saudi Arabia)
3. women not allowing to go to school (ONLY in the most conservative rural settings perhaps in Afghanistan and Pakistan)
4. women are submissive / passive
they can be countered by exposing people to new ideas and breaking down generalizations and stereotypes
