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Advanced animal behaviour > FINAL EXAM- Olfaction > Flashcards

FINAL EXAM- Olfaction Flashcards

1
Q

Is intra- or inter-specific conflict worse? why?

A
  • between group conflicts are worse as escalation occurs faster
  • group competition often about territory and resources on those territories
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2
Q

what was the first sensory modality?

A

olfaction

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3
Q

what other sensory modality is sometimes connected to olfaction?

A

taste

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4
Q

Flehman response

A
  • licking to bring molecules on tongue directly to the VNO (secondary olfactory system)
  • raise head to allow air into mouth and cause molecules to spin, getting them closer to the VNO
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5
Q

what causes the quick processing of molecules during olfaction?

A

molecules are only one layer away from your brain which allows quick processing compared to other modalities such as vision

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6
Q

what proximity is olfaction designed for?

A

close proximity–> which causes constraints, and is under environmental constraints (ex. wind direction/ strength)

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7
Q

describe the speed at which volatile molecules travel?

A

-do not move quickly
=quite stationary

-if no wind, then will stay near source

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8
Q

Name 3 means in which olfactory molecules can be dispersed?

A
  1. current flow or fluids (air or water)
  2. diffusion –> gas expansion
    - close to source is highest intensity
    - gases expand
  3. direct contact
    - gustation often involved- but not actually for taste
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9
Q

implicit processing for olfaction is _____?

A

=smelling (unconscious)

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10
Q

explicit processing for olfaction is _____?

A

=sniffing (conscious)

-motor system involved, actively processing info around you

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11
Q

In what 4 dimensions does olfaction differ in?

A
  1. Directionality
    - high to low concentrations, currents will influence
  2. Speed
    - diffusion is slow, trade off for permeance
  3. temporal pattern
    - almost none, or lost quickly
  4. Spectrum
    - no physical continuous dimensions
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12
Q

what is the production of chemical signals highly dependent on?

A
  1. The type of transmission (diffusion, current-borne, contact)
  2. The medium (air vs. water)
    - often species specific
    - dependent on density, composition, scent
    - liposoluble (more persistent) or hydro-soluble
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13
Q

Contact odours

A
  • usually pheromones
  • dependent on what trying to contact
  • hydrophobic
  • lipids, large hydrocarbons
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14
Q

Waterborne odours

A
  • size restriction of molecules do not count
  • large organic compounds
  • need to be water soluble (determined by polarity)
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15
Q

Airborne odours

A
  • Volatile: evaporation needed but don’t want too quickly
  • Stimulus: molecular size, weight and shape are important
  • Environment:
    1. wind and convection turbulences
    2. Atmospheric conditions (can cause movement)
    3. micro-meteorology
    4. pedology: soli composition can influence how molecules decoded
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16
Q

describe a scent plume

A
  • if you could see molecules, you would see a scent plume

- related to climatic/ environmental conditions

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17
Q

what are the main interferences with scent plumes?

A
  1. wind
  2. temperature
  3. humidity
  4. barometric pressure
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18
Q

what tool can be used to visualize wind?

A

=smoke bombs

**cant visualize movement of scent molecules just the wind, though scent molecules follow similar rules

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19
Q

what is key to understanding scent plumes?

A

=stability of the atmosphere

compare surface temp with temp aloft, the greater the difference= the more unstable/ greater the turbulence

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20
Q

what conditions are bad for sniffing?

A
  • cold and dry conditions (i.e. winter)

- high positive ion concentrations

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21
Q

describe ‘tracking’

A

when an animal has acquired a scent/ trail, and is right on it

head drop= acquired scent

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22
Q

describe ‘trailing’

A
  • before having acquired a source of an odour, looking for it
  • related to ‘air scenting’
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23
Q

Plume Pattern: Looping

A

-high degree of convectional turbulence (diff in temp of ground and higher/ certain altitude)

  • daytime
  • cool air at high altitude, warm air at surface

-directionality hard to figure out (plume goes up and down, up and down)

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24
Q

Plume Pattern: Coning

A
  • Normal/ stable thermal conditions
  • cloudy days
  • no dramatic cooling or warming
  • great air scenting conditions
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25
Q

Plume Pattern: Fanning

A
  • scent plume compressed vertically and fans out horizontally (higher than ground)
  • calm clear night
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26
Q

Plume Pattern: fumigating

A
  • stable air aloft, unstable air on ground (cooler scent plum diffuses down through warmer air)
  • sunrise/ dawn
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27
Q

Plume pattern: lofting

A
  • dusk/ sundown

- ground cooling but air still warm

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28
Q

diffusion vs. current flow–> which is dominant

A

current flow is dominant

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29
Q

What 3 factors influence the gradient of odour transmission?

A
  1. velocity (speed)
  2. viscosity of medium (state of semifluid)
  3. spatial scale (the ‘space’)
    - some animals may have mental representation of space/ plum (at least innate)
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30
Q

Describe Reynolds number (Re)= gradient

A

=inertial forces/ viscous forces= how likely to stick somewhere

  • mean flow velocity, length (distance), kinematic fluid viscosity
  • goal is to quantify the transition between laminar and turbulent patterns of flow
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31
Q

explain the results of Reynolds number

A

small Re= mostly diffusion

moderate Re= laminar flow

high Re= turbulent flow

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32
Q

what is the diffusion coefficient

A

=D= degrees of freedom of a molecule in the medium

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33
Q

Factors defining D (3)

A
  • size of molecule
  • interaction of molecule with medium
  • interaction of molecules with each other
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34
Q

what should be known in order to describe a ‘stimulus field’ ?

A
  1. the amount of chemical released

2. the threshold of detection for recipient/ reciever

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35
Q

Once a stimulus field is described, what can be determined?

A
  1. spreading
  2. fading
  3. density
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36
Q

Diffusion example: single, discrete puff

A 
Q= number of molecules released
k= receiver detection threshold

Active space:

  1. Sphere- above ground
  2. hemisphere= ground level

-relationship between these determines fade-out time

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37
Q

Diffusion example: single, continuous emission

A

Q= molecules/ sec –> smooth concentration gradient

not efficient way to communicate

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38
Q

Diffusion example: continuous emissions from a moving source

A

concept of a trail/ or tracking applies here

=sequence of puffs

Ex. snails, slugs, ants, snakes, etc.

Q= number of molecules released
k= receiver detection threshold
D= degrees of freedom of a molecule in medium
L= length of a trail
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39
Q

current flow will increase what two things?

A
  1. speed of transmission

2. distance of transmission

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40
Q

Name 2 factors in current flow

A
  1. minimal: convection (vertical displacement)

2. maximum: advection (horizontal displacement)

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41
Q

Describe laminar flow

A

-displacement of molecule unidirectional, without turbulence, with constant velocity

  • more likely with:
    - slow velocity
    - less dense media
    - short distances
  • spread prediction easy, predictable, therefore navigation easier to track plum
  • not common in normal environmental conditions (b/c wind, temp differences)
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42
Q

describe turbulent flow

A
  • opposite of laminar: vortices, eddies, waves, etc.
  • more likely with:
    - high velocity (reduce range of transmission)
    - dense media
    - long distances

-

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43
Q

flows are created by ___ and ___?

A
  1. temperature differential
  2. Coriolis forces (from rotation of planet)
    * cause convention effects
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44
Q

Name the 3 main factors that determine laminar vs. turbulent flow

A
  1. velocity (speed) of the flow
  2. density of medium (water vs. air)
  3. distance of defined flow space (things fade with distance)
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45
Q

what are hyperbaric conditions?

A

=high pressure conditions

scent dissipates quickly, but hugs the ground (pressure on ground)

in humans, threshold scores are higher in hyperbaric conditions

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46
Q

what are hypobaric conditions?

A

=low pressure

molecules NOT compressed to ground, can move freely–> initial scent will travel farther and higher

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47
Q

how does temperature influence taste and smell?

A

high temp warms things, which increases taste and smell- evaporation occurs faster

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48
Q

what are two interacting factors in terms of temperature?

A

evaporation and boiling point

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49
Q

how does temp influence evaporation?

A
  • low evaporation at low temp; slow fading

- high evaporation at high temp; quick fading

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50
Q

how does molecular weight impact evaporation?

A

low evaporation at high molecular weight

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51
Q

at what boiling point are you more likely to smell?

A

low boiling point

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52
Q

how does rain impact evaporation?

A

rain keeps odour in ground (not all evaporated) –> if warm day

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53
Q

how does temperature impact turbulence?

A

high temp= thermal convection= high turbulence

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54
Q

impact of air humidity on spread of odours?

A

high humidity in air will decrease spread of odours= bad for trailing

humid air is heavier
unless lipid based, will diminish quickly

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55
Q

impact of ground humidity on spread of odours?

A

high humidity in ground will trap odours at ground level= good for tracking

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56
Q

definition of odorants/ odours/ scent/ smells

A

generic and/or neutral stimuli

may be organic, but not necessarily with biological significance

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57
Q

definition of ‘semiochemical’

A

=chemical volatile used in communication, also potentially signification or representation (can communicate a lot of info)

biological significance

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58
Q

definition of ‘pheromones’

A

for intra-specific communication

‘social odours’

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59
Q

definition of ‘allelochemicals’

A

inter-specific communication (between species)

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60
Q

kairomones

A

=subtype of allelochemicals where RECIEVER benefits

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61
Q

allomones

A

=subtype of allelochemicals where SENDER benefits

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62
Q

synomones

A

=subtype of allelochemicals

=mutualistic in nature (sender and receiver benefit)–> bidirectional

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63
Q

‘primer effect’ of pheromones

A

=changes via endocrine and neuroendocrine system (eg. McClintock effect)

prime endocrine system–> any changes will be detectable

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64
Q

‘signaller effect’ of pheromones

A

-communicate info about the individual themselves (sex, age, status)

65
Q

‘releaser effect’ of pheromones

A

chemical acts as a sign stimulus to trigger a specific behavior (stimulus specific)

generate response from receiver

66
Q

‘modulator effect’ of pheromones

A

influence (short term) mood and emotions, etc.

67
Q

Rodent pheromonal effects are _____-dependent, and induced by ______

A
  1. testosterone-dependent

2. induced by normal adult males

68
Q

Lee-Boot effect

A
  • females housed together will experience a slowing and eventual cessation (suppression) of estrus
  • response to environmental constraints; population control before it is an issue)
69
Q

Witten effect

A

synchronization of estrous cycles of a group of females in presence of a novel male

70
Q

Vandenbergh effect

A

early onset of puberty of females housed with adult males

71
Q

Bruce effect

A

termination of pregnancy caused by presence/ smell of a new/strange male (not the father)

72
Q

T/F - producing a pheromone is a behavior?

A

technically TRUE (implicit and explicit)

73
Q

pheromone release is based on what 2 things?

A
  1. system used

2. hormones

74
Q

what are the main channels for pheromone release?

A
  1. secretory glands (endocrine and exocrine)
  2. excreted waste material (urine, feces, sweat, etc.)
  3. plant-based chemicals
75
Q

endocrine glands vs. exocrine glands

A

Endocrine: ductless glands secreting hormones in the blood vessels

exocrine glands: glands with ducts (ex. salivary, sweat, mammary, etc.)–> communicate info quickly, ducts used to get molecules outside body (released in volatile form)

76
Q

intracrine system

A

regulation of intracellular events

77
Q

autocrine system

A

hormones act on the cell that released them

78
Q

paracrine system

A

hormones act on cells adjacent to them

79
Q

neurocrine system

A

release of NT in synapse (pre to postsynaptic cell)

80
Q

neuroendocrine system

A

release of neurohormones form the neurosecretory cells

81
Q

what system is most likely involved in communication of pheromones?

A

exocrine system

82
Q

advantage of endocrine cells

A

-blood system/ vascular system

ADVANTAGE: get from one gland to whole body quickly

involve HPA and HPG axis

83
Q

exocrine glands…

  1. controlled by___?
  2. released in ___?
A
  1. controlled by endogenous hormones

2. released in the lumen of the glands

84
Q

3 types of exocrine glands?

A
  1. Merorine
  2. Apocrine
  3. Holocrine
85
Q

Exocrine gland: Merocrine

  1. process
  2. appearance
  3. efficiency
  4. function
  5. types
A
  1. Exocytosis: vesicles open-up and molecules go to bloodstream
  2. watery to slimy (if high content of protein=mucous)
  3. fast release–> less solid present
  4. mate attraction and alarm substances
  5. eccrine sweat glands (palms. soles, armpit, forehead)
    digestive glands
    nasal mucosa glands
86
Q

Exocrine gland: Holocrine

  1. process
  2. appearance
  3. efficiency
  4. types
A
  1. death + breakdown of entire cell in inner lining of glands
  2. thick, more solid, oily–> sebum
  3. slow release, evaporate less quickly, sticky
  4. Sebaceous glands (humans; all over body except palms and soles)
87
Q

Exocrine gland: Apocrine

  1. process
  2. appearance
  3. efficiency
  4. types
A
  1. combo of other two processes (part of cell ‘pinch off’)
  2. milky (not clear, a little solid within)
  3. intermediate efficiency
  4. -Apocrine sweat glands (humans; armpits, pubis, naval, nipples)
    • Mammary glands- communication between young and mother
88
Q

species specific gland examples:

  1. hamster
  2. ground squirrel
  3. salamander
  4. birds
A
  1. hamster= lateral glands
  2. squirrel= dorsal and cheek (mark den entrance)
  3. salamander= chin gland (scent mark ground)
  4. birds= uropygial (oily secretion rubbed on feathers for waterproofing)
89
Q

Ungulates: 5 discrete glands

A
  1. caudal: tail
  2. tarsal: back of leg to mark resting sites
  3. interdigital: behind digits to track
  4. preputial: odour in urine
  5. preorbital: corner of eye, territory marking (branches)
90
Q

do humans release pheromones?

A

human body highly suggestive of ability to release pheromones, but not a lot of literature/ evidence suggesting we do- there is data that we implicitly process pheromones

ex. synchronization of menstrual cycles

91
Q

why do fish have a protective mucous layer?

A

the mucous is rich in protein

  • good for contact (proximity)
  • feeds the young
92
Q

what specific gland do snakes have? and its function?

A

=Cloacal glands

-produce thick and smelly mucous to scare predators and used to communicate

93
Q

what is special about female garter snakes?

A
  • have own identifiable chemicals
  • holocrine-like mechanism from the skin
  • gives info to males about reproductive state and size of female
94
Q

excreted products include ….

A
  1. urine
  2. feces
  3. breath
  4. saliva
  5. sweat
  6. from gills
95
Q

excreted products provide information on: (6)

A
  1. gender –> males have more androgens, females estrogens
  2. dominance status –> correlation between androgen levels and rank
  3. fertility
  4. receptivity
  5. general health –> implicit interaction between endocrine and immune systems
  6. kin relatedness
96
Q

sexual steroids

A

=Androgens, estrogens progestogens

97
Q

stress steroids

A

=cortisol, corticosterone

98
Q

sources of steroids

A

=testes, ovaries, adrenal glands (cortex), placenta

99
Q

steroid hormones originally vs. after use

A

Originally: hydrophobic, liposoluble

After use: hydrophilic, hydrosoluble derivatives

100
Q

by product of steroid hormones are cues or signals?

A

=CUE

101
Q

are steroid hormones species specific?

A

steroid hormones often not species specific

102
Q

HPA axis vs. HPG axis?

A

HPA= stress

HPG= sex

103
Q

how does the HPA axis influence the HPG axis?

A

LT overactivity of HPA axis can cause suppression of the HPG axis and impact immune system

*low ranking animals may have suppression of HPG axis

104
Q

what system may be involved in fear?

A

SAM system

105
Q

SAM system

A
  • involved in fear and panic
  • quick signalling/ response to stressful events
  • focused on adrenaline and noradrenaline
106
Q

HPA axis vs. SAM system

A

HPA axis= slow response to stressful event

SAM system= much quicker to stressful event

*animals may be able to smell fear

107
Q

steroid hormones….

  1. synthesized from _____?
  2. sources?
  3. behavioral involvement
A
  1. cholesterol
  2. adrenal cortex, placenta, gonads (NS to lesser extent)
  3. sex and stress
108
Q

protein hormones ….

  1. what are they?
  2. sources?
  3. behavioral involvement
A
  1. small protein=peptide hormone, large protein= polypeptide hormone
  2. pituitary gland hormones, neurohormones, large group of hormones
  3. reproductive and social behavior
109
Q

monoamine hormones ….

  1. also known as?
  2. sources?
  3. behavioral involvement
A
  1. modified amino acid
  2. -catecholamines (adrenal medulla and CNS)
    • Indoleamines (melatonin): CNS and pineal gland
    • Thyroid hormones (derived from tyrosine): thyroid glands
  3. stress and arousal, biorhythm, sleep
110
Q

What binding protein family is involved in transporting pheromones to a liquid secretion?

A

Lipocalin family

Ex. saliva in boars and hedgehogs
Ex. Aphrodisin in female hamsters (motivate male to mount female)

111
Q

active scent marking can involve …. (2)

A
  1. anal glands for feces- very active in mammals

2. preuptial glands for urine (pheromones scent urine)

112
Q

how and why do beavers scent mark mud mounds?

A

scent mark mud mounds with castoreum (mixture of urine and feces) for territorial defense

detectable from far away

113
Q

what three chemical components do male rats have for active scent marking?

A

have two that attract opposite sex and one that attracts the same sex

“group scent” as they are social animals

114
Q

scent marking example with salamanders and lizards

A
  • fecal pellets to mark territories

- some species are careful not to mark too close to home to prevent predators from knowing where they are (ex. foxes)

115
Q

3 main sources of odorants in house mouse?

A
  1. major histocompatibility complex (MHC) –> from preuptial gland secretion
  2. urinary protein odours
  3. preuptial gland secretion
    * all have volatile and nonvolatile component
116
Q

What is the function of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC)

A
  • recognition system for most vertebrates; kin recognition and selection of non-related mates
  • fingerprint, gives info about genetic relatedness, info about health of immune system
  • use kidney-urine channel (binding to urinary metabolites)
117
Q

what are major urinary proteins (MUP)?

A

= are lipocalins (male mouse urine has 3-4x more protein than females= smellier)

FUNCTIONS:

  • for individual recognition
  • indicate endocrine and immune stress
  • provide gender information

*r-selected: quantity over quality

118
Q

Preputial gland…

  1. uses what as channel?
  2. main chemical compound and its effects?
A
  1. urethra to scent urine as it passes
  2. farnescene
    - high level in dominant males
    - triggers aggression in other dominate males
    - supress aggression in subordinate males
    - attractive to females
119
Q

bacteria derived volatiles can come from bacteria that is ____ or ___?

A
  1. within glands bacteria (vaginal fatty acid) or

2. external bacteria (areas with hair)

120
Q

amount of bacteria in glands is representative of what?

A

-level of health

  • males are less likely to seek out a female treated with antibiotics
  • humans tend to have normal bacteria levels, when sick we smell different due to overload of bacteria
  • marker is the scent of parasites that signal you are not healthy
121
Q

two dimensions of the spread of scents?

A
  1. complexity of release mechanism (how?)

2. placement of chemical (where?)

122
Q

what is dissemination often associated with?

A

specific postures and behaviours or correlates of postures and behaviours

123
Q

describe preening in birds

A

=birds spread the smell as much as they can all over their body

-if odour right on body it means you can rub it on other objects

124
Q

examples of behaviors associated with direct release of scent in a fluid medium

A

usually release comes with specific motor behavior

  1. insects and fish- calling posture (use wing to spread)
  2. spraying urine in mammals (territorial defense or get attention of opposite sex)
  3. self generated current/ wafting (bats, fish, insects)
125
Q

what is the best way to advertise self?

A

to scent your own body, thus enhancing own chemical profile

126
Q

2 ways of depositing scent on senders own body

A
  1. Bare skin via skin glans (skin glands produce and then spread around)
  2. Hair dispersal (specialized hairs are osmetrichia)
    - hair can help diffusion of scent molecules
127
Q

describe ‘self-anointing’

A

= acquisition of odour of other species

Ex. rolling in decomposed material in canids

128
Q

Active vs. passive methods of the deposition of scents onto solid substrates

A

Passive= no specific behavior necessary (problem: info useful to both conspecifics and predators)

Active= specialized behavior associated with marking (literal scent marking behavior with urine and feces)
Ex. wild cats–> go back to same spot (latrine) to eliminate
canids–> scent mark everywhere within territory

has to do with how social species is- use to communicate (alpha scent marks more than sub)

129
Q

how is vasopressin associated with urine retention?

A

more social species have higher levels of vasopressin then oxytocin to help regulate scent marking behavior

  • males scent mark more= higher vasopressin levels
  • females have higher oxytocin levels
130
Q

what is overmarking?

A
  • area used for urination competition; communal urination site
  • alpha pees and then others challenge by overmarking/ peeing over it
131
Q

what is a keeper substance?

A

=increased permeance

-lipids and waxy esters (thicker, oilier, less volatile)

Ex. sebum slows release

132
Q

two main components of the olfactory system

A
  1. primary/ main= olfactory bulb
  2. accessory/ secondary= VNO or Jakobsen’s organ
    * both processed by limbic system
133
Q

what happens if bypass thalamic processing of scent?

A

get emotion before cognition

134
Q

what is ‘smound’

A

=perceptual object by merging sound with smell

–> about how quickly both reach limbic system (more likely to be associated)

135
Q

why are olfaction and taste differences unclear in fish?

A

have taste and olfactory receptors on barbs

–> very specific cell receptors

136
Q

name the 3 pathways fish have to process scents?

A
  1. crypt cell receptors (pheromones)
  2. microvillus receptors (food odours)
  3. ciliary receptors (alarm substances)
137
Q

microsmatic vs. macrosmatic

A

microsmatic= sense of smell not great (i.e. humans)

macrosmatic= sense of smell is dominant

138
Q

do humans have a VNO? what do we have?

A
  • not a lot of evidence suggesting we have VNO–> if do it is vestigial
  • have turbinates= grooves in nasal cavity that swirls scent inside when inhale
139
Q

is VNO exclusive for pheromones? is it necessary to process them?

A
  • No not exclusive
  • not necessary either (can be destroyed and still process pheromones –> VNO may be able to process nonbiologically relevant odours, can identify prey in some species
140
Q

how is the olfactory system associated with emotions?

A
  1. direct access to limbic system (can bypass thalamus)

2. cortical access via thalamus (higher order processing)

141
Q

what is the main olfactory motor behavior in mammals?

A

sniffing

142
Q

what system do air breathers rely on to process scent?

A

respiratory system

143
Q

olfaction is insignificant in cetaceans and birds with the exception of ____

A
  1. turkey vultures (can detect leaks in pipelines)
  2. tube nosed seabirds (use in flight often at night)
  3. nocturnal birds
    - kiwi (gets food from ground)
    - oilbirds (search for ripe fruit)

black footed albatross–> can detect bacon fat in ocean 30km away

144
Q

VNO is present is ______, and absent/ vestigial in _____?

A

PRESENT:
-tetrapod’s=amphibians, reptiles, terrestrial mammals

ABSENT:
-fish (not completely), crocodiles, turtles, birds, primates, aquatic mammals, some bats

145
Q

are pheromones always species specific?

A

not necessarily

146
Q

when is mating behavior disrupted in hamsters in relation to processing of pheromones ?

A

when both VNO and olfactory epithelium are damaged–> both send projections to amygdala, so if lesioned will also disrupt behavior

147
Q

brain regions involved in pheromones in mammals (3)

A
  1. preoptic area (POA): processes pheromones
  2. hypothalamus: detect fear, detect threats from visual system, direct info from olfaction, critical in taste
  3. amygdala: connected to primary olfactory bulb
  4. olfactory epithelium
    * all involved in mammalian sexual behavior*
148
Q

what does removing VNO do?

A

-in some animals nothing, in others can disrupt sexual behavior and/or act as model of depression

149
Q

what is the VNO specialized for?

A
  • for large non-volatile chemicals

- for small soluble chemicals via water or mucus

150
Q

examples of behaviors specific to VNO pheromone processing?

A
  1. Amphibians: nose-tapping or trickling of water
  2. reptiles: tongue flicking
  3. mammals: nose rubbing, vascular pumping action (look like in trance, intense and rare)
151
Q

olfactory bulbs are rich in what kind of receptors?

A

=dopamine receptors

olfactory responses are dopaminergic in nature

152
Q

what is critical in order to determine the source of odours?

A

know directionality–> intensity of gradient also key

153
Q

what is kinesis?

A

random walk based on movement when in smooth gradient, speed and turning rate are modulated

154
Q

what is taxis?

A

non-random, guiding behavior when in smooth gradient- based on info as you go

155
Q

tropotaxis vs. klinotaxis

A

both subtype of taxis (non-random behavior)

Tropotaxis= simultaneous sampling or stereo-olfaction
ex. nostrils in mammals, forked tongue in snakes

Klinotaxis= sequential sampling (temporal gradient used to infer position of source)

  • horizontal: back and forth movement of head
  • vertical: up and down movement of head
156
Q

in turbulent flow, what two processes must be engaged in order to determine orientation of scent?

A
  1. detection of direction of source

2. detection of direction of flow

157
Q

Anemotaxis vs. rheotaxis

A

Anemotaxis= orientation in relation to wind

rheotaxis= orientation in relation to current

158
Q

function of mechanosensors

A

often used to identify directionality of wind or water currents (not useful with swimming or flying animals)

159
Q

describe ‘casting’?

A

=zig-zagging across the flow (complex pattern to find anything when a lot of air displacement or no wind at all)

Advanced animal behaviour (7 decks)

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