Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

ANTH 1220 > Final Exam (Lectures) > Flashcards

Final Exam (Lectures) Flashcards

1
Q

Def: Marriage

A

The relationship between one or more men and one or more women who are recognized by societies as having an ongoing claim to the right of sexual access to one another

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

True or false? All husbands and wives share the same household.

A

False

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

When was gay marriage made legal in Canada?

A

April 11, 2000 Bill C-23 extended common law partnerships to include same sex couples
* Some provinces have passed laws to circumvent (get around) this

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

What is the argument made against same-sex marriage?

A

Most arguments against same-sex marriage assert that male-female partnerships have always been the norm, but this is not the case when you look at other cultures

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Why is marriage important in societies?

A
  • Marriage is universal because all cultures recognize the need to control sexual relations to prevent conflict within the society
  • Marriage reduces competition
  • How a marriage takes form is based on who has the rights to the children that are produced and how property is distributed
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

How did sexuality affect the early hominids?

A
  • Most female primates are sexually receptive only around the time of ovulation
  • Human females do not display any of the signs that other primates use, and can be receptive at any point during the reproductive cycle
  • This universal receptivity may have connections to bipedalism and the increase in hormones that are necessary for increased endurance
  • Another effect it may have had on early hominids was that it created stronger social ties between members of groups - sex can enforce ties, but it can also be disruptive too
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

How is sex controlled within culture?

A

• Among non-human primates, males use their aggressiveness and larger physical size to attempt to dominate females, but monopolizing females can lead to conflict in a group
○ Thus sexual activity is brought under control using culture
For humans, culture dictates when, where, how and with whom sex is permitted

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Only about ____ of all societies strictly prohibit sex outside of marriage.

A

5%

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

What is prepuberty marriage in Nayar culture?

A

• Just before a girl undergoes her first menses, she takes part in a ceremony that temporarily unites her with a young man
• Sexual relations may or may not be part of the union
• After a few days this relationship ends, and the girl is now eligible for sexual activity with men that her household approves of
*There are no obligations to the man she was tied to

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

How is marriage done in Nayar culture?

A
  • When the girl enters into a continuing liaison with a man her household approves of, gifts are given to her 3 times a year until the relationship ends
  • She is not supported economically by the man, nor is her home his home
  • She may have this type of relationship with several men at once
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

What happens when a woman has children in Nayar culture?

A
  • When the woman becomes pregnant, some man must formally acknowledge paternity by giving gifts to the woman and midwife
  • He has no further obligations to the child as it is the woman’s brothers who are responsible for education and supporting the child
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What is incest taboo?

A
  • This prohibits sexual relations between closely related individuals
  • Almost always encompasses parents and siblings
  • Sibling marriages in the Egyptian, Inca, and Hawaiian royal families were partially due to controlling access to sacred bloodlines
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Incest Taboo: “Familiarity Breeds Contempt (Instinct)” Explanation

A
  • Looks at the fact that those raised together are less likely to be interested in one another
  • Those raised together in kibbutzes tend to avoid marrying one another
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Incest Taboo: Genetic Explanation

A
  • Inbreeding is undesirable as it can lead to the concentration of undesirable genetic traits
  • Chimps avoid inbreeding between siblings and parents
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Incest Taboo: Social explanation

A
  • Peace in the family is maintained if there is no competition allowed between its members
  • Freud proposed the Oedipus (son desires mother, suppresses urge because of father) and Electra (opposite of Oedipus) complexes
  • No really convincing argument has been put forward, but the incest taboo is probably the culturally amplified tendency to avoid inbreeding
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Endogamy vs Exogamy

A

Endogamy is marriage within a particular group of individuals
Exogamy is marriage outside the group which establishes alliances and shares cultural values with other groups

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Mating vs Marriage

A

Mating is a short or long term sexual bond with an individual of the opposite sex and is driven by biology
Marriage is a social, legal, economic, CULTURAL construct where the bond is expected to be long term

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Def: Common Law Marriage

A

Common law marriages take effect after a man and woman have lived together for one year, and are defined based on cohabitation and conjugal ties

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Def: Monogamy

A
  • Monogamy is the taking of only one spouse and in North America this is the only legally recognized form of marriage
  • Mating patterns tend not to be monogamous (most primates are not)
  • Humans probably did not start out monogamous
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Explain the Nandi same sex marriages.

A
  • If a wife doesn’t have a son, she has lower status and does not have someone to inherit a share of her husband’s wealth
  • One way to get around the patrilineal inheritance pattern is for a woman to take a wife to give her male heirs
  • A woman assumes the gender role of a man and takes a female wife
  • The female husband abandons her role as a woman and takes on a masculine identity (her status is close to that of the men in her society)
  • Often the female husband’s wife is someone who has trouble making a good match, and the marriage raises her status as well
  • The female wife enters a sexual relationship with one of the male relatives of her female “husband’s” male husband
  • Any children are considered the offspring of the wife and her female husband
  • The female husband and her wife are not allowed to have sexual relations, and the female husband is expected to stop having sexual relations with anyone even though she still has a male husband
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Def: Polygyny

A
  • One man and more than one woman
  • This is the most favoured form of marriage because wealth is often tied to the number of wives a man can have
  • Plains peoples had more than one wife to help with domestic and economic activities (hide tanning)
  • Mee society encourages men to have as many wives as possible, and a wife can divorce a husband if he refuses to take more wives!
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Def: Sororal marriage

A
  • Sororal marriage is where one man is married to two or more sisters
  • Type of polygyny
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Def: Polyandry

A
  • Marriage of one woman to two or more men
  • It is very rare and limits the number of descendants a man has, restricting population growth, provides pool of male labour, and allows several economic options to be pursued
  • In Tibet, it is tied to the scarcity of land and the inheritance pattern
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Def: Fraternal Polyandry

A

-Several brothers marry one woman to prevent the land being further subdivided.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Def: Conjoint Marriage

A

Conjoint marriage is where two brothers simultaneously married to two women

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

Def: Group Marriage

A
  • More than one man and woman
  • Very rare
  • The Caingang people of Brazil practiced group marriage, but even among them, only 8% of unions were group marriages
  • Transitory for the most part
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Levirate vs Sororate

A

• Levirate = when a man dies leaving wife and children, one of his brothers marries her to provide social security and to raise the children
• Sororate = when a wife dies, her husband marries her sister
Both cases allow ties established between two families to be maintained by supplying substitute spouses

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

Def: Serial Monogamy

A
  • Man or woman has a series of spouses, one after the other
  • Increasingly common in the western world
  • Children tend to stay with the mother after the marriage ends
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

What are the problems with choice of spouse in Western Culture?

A
  • The Western view that anyone can marry whoever they like is unusual
  • Problems crop up with ideals of youth and beauty, glamour
  • Emphasis on romantic love - marriages can be based on transitory emotions and trivial characteristics
  • The divorce rate in the Western world suggests that there are problems with selection of spouses
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

Why have arranged marriages?

A
  • Most marriages are arranged because young people are not considered responsible or objective enough with regards to marriage partners
  • Arranged marriages are often set up by the family and take into account things like economics, social class, compatibility - tend to have some advantage to the rest fo the family monetarily or politically
  • Are not common in the general Canadian population, but are more common in immigrant families
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Why are matrilineal/patrilineal cross or parallel cousin marriages sometimes preferred?

A

All types of cousin marriage serve to keep wealth within the family and allow marriages to individuals of equal rank.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

How is marriage done in the Trobriand Islands?

A
  • In the Trobriand Islands, when a couple wants to get married they sit in public on the veranda of the man’s house
  • The bride’s mother brings cooked yams and after they eat them, the marriage is official
  • A day later, the bride is given by her husband’s sister three long banana leaf skirts showing that the bride is no longer an adolescent
  • For the first year of the marriage, the bride’s mother supplies cooked yams
  • Gift giving of yams and valuables between families is to bind the two families together through a series of obligations
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

Def: Bride Price (bride wealth)

A
  • Is a payment to the bride’s parents or close kin
  • It compensates them for losing the bride’s labour when she moves to her husband’s home
  • The woman’s family can use the money to provide a home for her or to finance the wedding ceremonies
  • Usually it must be refunded if the marriage ends thus it contributes to the stability of the marriage
  • Other types of compensation may be the exchange of women between families or the Kula necklace (Trobriand bride price)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

Def: Bride Service

A

Bride service is when the husband works for his wife’s family for a certain length of time

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

Def: Dowry

A
  • Dowry is wealth a woman brings to a marriage
  • It might be her portion of the family inheritance and does not necessarily remain under her control, often her husband gets it
  • One function of dowry is to give the woman support if she is widowed
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

Def: Family

A
  • A group composed of a married couple, common-law couple, or an individual parent and any of their offspring
  • A woman, her dependant children, and one adult male related by marriage or blood
  • A kinship group raising children, whether natural or adopted
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

Consanguine Family vs Conjugal Family vs Polygynous Family vs Polyandrous Family

A

• Consanguine family: woman, woman’s offspring and her brothers (Nayar of India)
• Conjugal family (nuclear family): married or common-law couple and their children
• Polygynous family: one man, his wives and their children (polygamous family)
Polyandrous family: one woman, her husbands, and children (polygamous)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

How did nuclear families emerge?

A
  • Emerged recently, partially due to the Catholic Church prohibiting close marriages, discouraging adoption, not allowing divorce, polygyny or remarriage
  • Resulted in closer ties between spouses, some marriages did not produce heirs
  • 20% of marriages produce only daughters, 20% are childless
  • Property began to be transferred to the Church as a result and the church became largest landowner in Europe in the Middle Ages
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

Name the various functions of the family?

A
  1. Raising children
  2. Children rely on their parents for protection, food, socialization and interaction
  3. Human children are more vulnerable at birth, take longer to mature than any other primate
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

Def: Enculturation

A
  • The process where culture is passed down from one generation to the next, beginning at birth, it continues through life
  • Children learn from family, friends, neighbours, adults
  • In our society, children are sent to school, learning tends to be through observation, participation, correction
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

What are the two concepts brought up by Ruth Benedict?

A

Enculturation: The process by which children acquire their culture
Socialization: A similar to process to enculturation that emphasizes social rather than cultural factors in learning one’s culture

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

Def: Household

A
  • Households are task-oriented residential groups
  • They organize and implement economic production, consumption, inheritance, child rearing, shelter
  • The core of a household may be one or more families
  • Household members are not necessarily part of the families in it
  • Households are not present in all societies
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

Def: Nuclear Family

A
  • This is a conjugal family considered the standard in North America
  • Couples do not as a rule look after aging parents
  • Occurs in societies like the Inuit where the environment is harsh and mobility an asset
  • Allows for easy mobility
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

Def: Extended Family

A
  • A collection of nuclear families related consanguineally that live together in one household
  • Common in past, now seen mostly in immigrant communities
  • Might include grandparents, their children and grandchildren
  • Making a reappearance as children are starting to care for their elderly parents in the home rather than send them into institutionalized care facilities
  • Communes in the 1960s were an attempt to form extended families amoung young people
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

Def: Same-sex families

A

• Most controversial form of family
• Face social stigma and discrimination in past could not marry, but no longer the case
• Two types:
○ Step-families where children are from previous heterosexual relationships
○ Co-parent families where lesbians conceive through a sperm donor or gay men who have adopted, fostered, or used surrogacy
Lesbian step-families are most common

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

Def: Patrilocal

A
  • Woman goes to live with her husband and his family/household
  • Common in societies where inheritance is patrilineal and men are primary bread winners
  • About 69% of cultures have this pattern
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

Def: Matrilocal

A
  • Man moves to his wife’s household
  • Hopi are an example
  • Prominent in horticultural societies where women play a big role in economics
  • About 13% of cultures have this pattern
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

Def: Ambilocal

A
  • Married couple can choose matrilocal or patrilocal
  • They tend to go where their labour is needed the most
  • The choices made in previous generations may also have an influence
  • About 9% of societies have this residence pattern
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

Def: Neolocal

A
  • Couple can move where they like
  • Not tied to the family
  • “New place”
  • About 5% of societies use this residence pattern and it is the most common residence pattern in North America
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

Def: Avunculocal

A
  • Couple moves to husband’s mother’s brother’s household (uncle)
  • Shows up in matrilineal societies where property rights are important
  • About 4% of societies have this pattern
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

What are polygamous family problems?

A
  • Polygynous families can have jealousy problems
  • One solution is to marry sisters who get along (sororal polygyny)
  • Provide wives with separate houses
  • Rotation of sleeping partners by husband
  • Polyandry solves jealousy by marrying one wife to two or more brothers (fraternal polyandry)
  • Older husbands/brothers tend to dominate younger ones who tend to leave when there are conflicts
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

What are extended family problems?

A
  • Who is going to make decisions
  • Spouses marrying in may have problems adjusting and some cultures allow them to return to their parent’s home
  • Mechanisms in society tend to put pressure on that restrict this (the concept of “face”)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

What are nuclear family problems?

A
  • Face economic pressures which may force both spouses to work
  • Neolocal residence pattern means old established roles may no longer apply
  • When background/cultures of spouses are diverse, this can cause stresses in the marriage
  • Lack of female relatives to support during pregnancy, childbirth, child rearing
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

What are female-headed family problems?

A
  • Children remain with mother after divorce, or with women who have not married and have no spouse in residence
  • Child support can be a problem
  • Where money for housing, food, cleaning, comes from can be an issue
  • May not have kin available for children while the mother works
  • Lack of skills, lower wages…
  • Women in this situation tend to live in poverty
  • Female-headed households are increasingly common worldwide
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

Gender vs Sex

A

Sex: inherited, biological differences between males and females
Gender: culturally constructed ideas about sex differences
“Sex is what’s between the legs, gender is what’s between the ears”

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

Which generic terminology is used in anthropology to describe behaviour patterns (culture specific)?
XX + feminine behaviour =
XY + masculine behaviour =
XX + masculine behaviour =
XY + feminine behaviour =
XX or XY or intersex + gender neutral behaviour =
XX or XY or intersex with a combination of feminine and masculine behaviours =

A

XX + feminine behaviour = woman
XY + masculine behaviour = man
XX + masculine behaviour = masculinized female
XY + feminine behaviour = feminized male
XX or XY or intersex + gender neutral behaviour = asexual or neuter
XX or XY or intersex with a combination of feminine and masculine behaviours = androgynous
***IMPORTANT: “masculine” and “feminine” are defined by the culture we’re looking at, not the anthropologist’s point of view

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

Def: Gender Role

A

The culturally-prescribed behaviour associated with men and women; roles can vary from society to society

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

Def: Gender Ideology

A

The culturally prescribed values assigned to the task and status of men an women; values can vary from society to society

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

How are male archaeologists biased?

A
  • Archaeologists mostly male
  • Focus on “male” activities and their material culture residues
  • Projectile point automatically gets thought of as a male object, and pots associated with female activities
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
60
Q

Why is human sexuality of interest to anthropologists but is not an easy subject to study?

A
  • Informants may be reluctant to discuss sexual practices with strangers
  • The anthropologist may not be comfortable with the topic
  • Tremendous variation exists in the way sexuality is viewed, it is partially a cultural construct
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
61
Q

What are some facts about homosexuality?

A
  • Is common worldwide
  • Western cultures define it based on the desire to have sexual relations with someone of the same sex
  • In other cultures it is more tied to gender roles than purely the biological aspects
  • In many past/present cultures it is viewed as normal and acceptable (past Greek, Roman society; present Papua New Guinea)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
62
Q

What are some gender identifiers?

A
  • Clothing
  • Mannerisms
  • Mode of speaking, voice pitch, language use (grammar, gender)
  • Mode of address, he, she, he, shemale
  • Use/non-use of make-up, jewellery, body modifications
  • Spatial segregation
  • Legal distinctions
  • Sexuality
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
63
Q

Def: Two-Spirited

A
  • Part of the First Nations culture
  • Two-spirited refers to their spiritual ability to cross gender boundaries and the physical/spiritual realms
  • For decades, the two-spirited tradition was suppressed, but it has re-emerged as a way to empower native peoples who do not fit into the gender roles of man or woman
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
64
Q

Def: Berdache

A
  • This is not a Native term, but a French one (originating from the Persian) used to describe the two-spirited
  • While widely used in anthropology, it is not the appropriate term to use as it has negative connotations
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
65
Q

Def: Male two-spirited (feminine male)

A
  • Dress as woman
  • Perform women’s tasks
  • May have sexual relations with a man (more typical) or woman who tends to not be two-spirited
  • Their two-spirit identity is believed to be the result of intervention from supernatural powers
  • Many receive visions or dreams, and have a role as shamans as they cross gender boundaries and thus can cross the border between the human/spirit world
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
66
Q

Def: Female two-spirited (masculine female)

A

• Female who dress as men
• Follow a man’s lifestyle, becoming hunters, warriors and chiefs
• Could be titled the same as male two-spirited or with a distinct term
• Tend to form relationships with non-two spirited women, and could have multiple wives
• Ex) Pine Leaf (of the Gros Ventre Crow)
○ Rose to the status of Chief
○ Had four wives
• Held considerable political influence in her tribe and region

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
67
Q

Who are the Hijuras?

A
  • Best known and most studied of India’s third genders
  • We’re born male, intersexed or hermaphrodite, but dress and act like women
  • Many have had surgery which castrated and or emasculated them
  • Have the right to inspect any newborn and claim those who are not clearly male or female
  • They survive by begging, singing and dancing in public, and prostitution
  • Are heavily stigmatized and openly discriminated against
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
68
Q

Who are the Sadhins of India?

A
  • Mentioned in the Hindu religious texts but not as well known or widespread as the hijras
  • Title is feminized from sadhu (male holy man)
  • Documented among the Gaddis of the Himalayan foothills
  • Are female ascetics who renounce marriage and remain celibate
  • Dress as men and cut their hair in a priestly tonsure
  • A girl can choose to become a sadhin at the age of 6, but more typically the decision is made close to their first menarche
  • The choice to be a sadhin is not reversible
  • They retain their female names
  • Do not renounce the material world other than in their adherence to chastity
  • Sadhin are expected to remain virgins and become asexual in terms of sexual behaviour
  • They may choose to take on masculine occupations and sit with men at events where men and women are segregated, but do not attend funerals with the men
  • They may also make offerings to the spirits of their fathers and ancestors, rituals normally performed by the son
  • Unlike hijras, sadhin do not have a special ritual role in society nor any special powers
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
69
Q

Why become a Sadhin?

A
  • Within Indian society, the only roles generally accepted for females are that of wife and mother
  • The Sadhin gender allows those who reject those roles an alternate choice, but one which must be made before puberty
  • Sadhin are non-threatening to societal norms in terms of sexuality as sex is removed as an option for these unmarried females who opt out of the traditional wife-mother roles
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
70
Q

How is gender defined in the Western World?

A
  • All Western cultures recognize “man” and “woman” as genders
  • Other genders may exist (transgendered, gay, lesbian, bisexual) but not be formally recognized or accepted
  • In the past, those with alternate genders were forced to live “in the closet” or assume a gender which was more acceptable to their culture
  • Gender in the West is primarily defined based on sexual partner preferences rather than other behaviours
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
71
Q

Def: Social Group

A

A group of people beyond the domestic unit who have relationships outside that of kinship

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
72
Q

Types of social groups: Primary group vs Secondary group

A

Primary group: those who interest and know each other personally
Secondary group: identify with one another on common grounds but may never meet or interact personally with each other

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
73
Q

Formal vs Informal Groups

A
  • Informal groups tend to be smaller, less visible, less hierarchal in organization and do not have legal recognition (often primary)
  • Members of formal groups may not know one another and interaction is not as close or face to face (often secondary)
  • More variety in groups is found among agricultural and industrial societies than foragers and pastoralists
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
74
Q

Name characteristics of friendship groups.

A
  • Primary social group
  • People choose their friends, and friendship is voluntary
  • Gender segregation can limit cross-gender friendships
  • Tends to occur between social equals
  • Support is mutual
  • Close friends can be referred to by kinship terms (brother, sister, aunt, uncle)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
75
Q

Name some characteristics of clubs or fraternities.

A
  • Define membership based on shared identity (heritage, occupation, business, religion, gender) and objectives
  • Can have political and economic roles
  • Women’s clubs tend to offer psychological support to members and act as political lobby groups
  • Men’s clubs with strong male-male bonds can objectify women and occur where male competition is common
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
76
Q

Name some characteristics of Common Interest Associations.

A
  • Are groups formed to deal with specific issues
  • Tend to form in urbanized societies
  • May be a reaction to wide separations between family members, with the CI group supplying a social structure
  • May range from completely voluntary to compulsory
  • Can have groups based on an interest in sports, social problems (MADD), service to the community (Kinsmen, Kiwanis) spiritual experience (native secret societies), work (unions)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
77
Q

Name some characteristics of Countercultural Groups.

A
  • Formed by those outside the mainstream culture
  • Resistance to the dominant cultural pattern is typical
  • Bonding through initiation and rituals is important
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
78
Q

Name some characteristics of youth gangs.

A
  • Groups of young people usually found in urban areas, who are considered a problem by adults and law enforcement
  • Can be formally or informally organized
  • Usually have initiation rituals, symbolic markers of membership and a recognized leader
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
79
Q

Name some characteristics of Masta Liu (Solomon Islands).

A
  • Have no formal leadership or initiation rituals
  • Are unemployed young males who came to Honiara looking for work rather than work the fields under senior family members
  • Tend to wander about town in groups of ten
  • Live with kin or communally with other liu members
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
80
Q

Name some characteristics of “Chavs” (United Kingdom).

A
  • Have no formal leadership or initiation rituals (although receiving an “ASBO” is considered “cred-worthy”)
  • Are unemployed youth who are usually on social assistance and living in “council” (social housing)Tend to wander about town in groups, intimidating and threatening passers by
  • Tend to wear brand-name athletic clothing, Burberry Check patterns, and large amounts of “bling”
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
81
Q

Name some characteristics of street gangs.

A
  • More formal organization with a leader and hierarchy of members under him/her
  • Have recognizable names and mark identity with tattoos or “colours”
  • Not all street gangs are involved in violence
  • Members are from a variety of family backgrounds, but most are defiant individualists (intensely competitive, wary, self-reliant, socially isolated and strong survival instinct)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
82
Q

Name some characteristics of motorcycle gangs.

A
  • Emerged from the 1% of those in motorcycle groups who were troublemakers according to mainstream riders
  • Outlaw clubs wear colours or a club insignia
  • Tend to modify their motorcycles
  • Territories are defended, sometimes by force
  • D.R. Wolf did fieldwork in one gang and observed that members were looking for an identity and community not provided elsewhere
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
83
Q

Name some characteristics of body-modification groups.

A
  • A community of people strengthened through body modification
  • Mainly consists of those who have undergone genital piercing, branding and cutting
  • “Initiation” consists of going onstage as a volunteer and having an expert perform some sort of body modification in public
84
Q

Name some characteristics of work groups.

A
  • Are initially organized to perform specific tasks where a large number of people are required
  • Most common in horticultural and intensive (non-industrial) agriculturalist cultures
  • Typically composed of young men who do not have the same restrictions as young women in patrilocal societies
85
Q

Name some characteristics of co-operatives.

A
  • An economic group where surpluses are shared between members and decision making is through democratic voting by the membership
  • Most typical types are agricultural, credit and consumer
86
Q

Name some characteristics of craft co-operatives in Panama.

A
  • Co-op buys cloth and thread in bulk and distributes it to the women who are members
  • They sew molas (cloths with applique designs) which are paid for by the co-op at full price
  • Only a small cut is taken for the co-op
  • Allows the women to have a steady income outside of the tourist season
87
Q

Name some characteristics of self-help groups.

A
  • Groups formed to achieve specific personal goals (weight loss, support during bereavement)
  • Are increasingly common on the internet
  • In Mexico, AA is mostly composed of low-income, working class males, many of who migrated to the cities looking for work (alcoholism is related to poverty), but the group has high rates of sobriety
88
Q

Name some characteristics of gender groups.

A
  • Remember sex refers to biology, gender to cultural constructs
  • Gender roles are delineated in every culture
  • Some can be seen as stereotypes (men like football, women to shop)
  • Division of labour by gender is common in almost every society
89
Q

Def: Stratification

A

“…some are more equal than others…”

90
Q

Def: Age Grading

A
  • Formation of groups based on age
  • Used to organize groups in most societies
  • In industrial societies, age groups tend to move through a series of age grades (kindergarten to grade 12)
  • Also can look at retirement age, age to drive, to drink alcohol, to vote
  • Retirement communities often have age restrictions
  • Labels can be age related - teenagers, retirees, middle-aged, senior citizens
  • Entry into or exit from an age grade may happen on an individual basis by biology (puberty) or socially recognized event that changes status (marriage, childbirth)
  • Age grade members may not have the same physiological or calendar ages
  • Usually a specific time is required to pass from one grade to the next
  • Senior age grades may expect respect from their juniors, but there is not necessarily a distinction in status between the two
91
Q

How are the elderly treated in Non-Western Societies?

A
  • Old age can bring great respect
  • Women may reach equal status with men
  • The elderly are rarely abandoned - Inuit only did this in cases of truly dire and desperate circumstances when a group’s survival was at stake
92
Q

How are the elderly treated in Non-Literate Societies?

A
  • Seniors are seen as living libraries of knowledge
  • Often play a teaching role in their cultures
  • No longer have to participate in subsistence activities
93
Q

How are the elderly treated in the Western World?

A
  • Seniors are not as important for transmitting knowledge, and their role/status is problematic
  • By 2026, seniors will make up 21% of the Canadian population, compared to 13% today
  • Elderly are seen less as an asset and more as an economic burden
94
Q

Def: Age Sets

A
  • Also known as age “cohorts”
  • A group of people who are initiated into an age grade who move through the system together
  • Members of age sets tend to have close ties throughout their lives
95
Q

Def: Social Stratification

A
  • Is typical of large societies with centralized political control (ex-Ancient Maya, Modern England)
  • Society is divided into classes that are ranked, and do not share equally in basic resources (wealth), influence (power), or prestige ( social esteem)
  • Lower ranked classes tend to have less power and fewer privileges than those that are higher ranked
  • Each rank in a stratified society has its own set of restrictions, obligations
  • Stratified societies are comprised of institutionalized inequality
96
Q

Def: Functionalist Theory

A
  • Inequality is necessary for the maintenance of complex societies
  • Canadian society has different types of workers - doctors and maintenance workers, are necessary, but with different status assigned to their professions (More education = Higher status)
  • In practice this theory doesn’t work that well (Hockey players aren’t necessary, yet are better paid than nurses are)
  • Ignores barriers faced by minorities and those from lower socioeconomic strata
97
Q

Def: Conflict Theory

A
  • Emphasizes class conflict
  • Those in the upper level of society attempt to maintain the status quo
  • Those in the lower levels who struggle for a more equitable division of resources - wealth, power, prestige
  • Evolved out of the work of Karl Marx - struggle between: Bourgeoisie (own the resources) and Proletariat (working class)
98
Q

Def: Status

A
  • a person’s position or standing within society
  • Each status has a level of relative prestige assigned to it
  • Every status or rank has a role assigned to it - the behaviours which are expected from someone of that status
99
Q

Def: Social class

A
  • **class=ACHIEVED STATUS
  • a category of individuals of equal or near equal prestige according to the system of evaluation (there can be inequality within a class)
  • North America is divided into lower, middle and upper class based on income levels or divided based on education
100
Q

Def: Meritocratic Individualism

A
  • A system which allows for upward mobility within a society
  • One achieves a higher class through merit by succeeding
  • Rewards go to those who earn them is a tenet of this ideology
  • In North America, a popular belief in all classes is that rewards are based on equal opportunity and merit
101
Q

What are some components of manifestation of social class?

A
  1. Verbal evaluation: allows people to decide what class one belongs to based on what one says about their society (dialect someone uses)
  2. Association: who one interacts with, where, how, why, how formal or informal one is to others
  3. Symbolic indicators: activities and possessions that one does/has = status symbols (occupation, dress, form of recreation, where one lives, the type of car you own)
102
Q

Def: Race

A
  • Race is used to categorize groups of people based on biological or physical features
  • Emerged in the 18th century colonial period when it was used to justify expansion and dominance over other people
  • Stereotyping still remains today
103
Q

Def: Racism (Racial Stratification)

A
  • is the belief that one “race” is superior to all others due to biological and/or cultural reasons
  • Often “justified” by genetics
  • Similar to ethnocentrism, but often has exploitation behind it
104
Q

Why does race not apply to science?

A
  • In fact, there is no biological basis for the term “race”
  • The concept cannot be applied to human biological differences
  • Humans have interbred so much that populations cannot be clearly classified based on the presence or absence of traits
  • There is more genetic, physical and psychological diversity within a so-called “race” than there is between “races”
  • “Race” is simply not a scientifically useful concept
105
Q

Def: Ethnicity (Ethnic Stratification)

A
  • Ethnicity is derived from a shared sense of identity and common cultural features
  • Can be identified by dress, language, culture, religion
  • No ethnic group is homogeneous
  • China formally monitors ethnic groups which it considers a threat to state stability
  • When ethnic groups leave their homeland, they become a diaspora population, and risk isolation and discrimination
  • Canada is a multicultural, multiethnic society
106
Q

Def: Caste

A

**ASCRIBED STATUS
• Caste (from the Portuguese casta) is a fixed system where one is born into a particular rank
• Caste membership is based on who your parents are, is determined at birth
• Almost NO mobility
• Castes are strictly endogamous
• The Hindi word for caste is varna (colour or shade)

107
Q

How did the Caste System originate?

A
  • Purusha Sukta (Hymn of Man), a primal man with a thousand heads and a thousand feet, was the universe
  • When he was sacrificed and dismembered, his bottom quarter became the world, the words from his mouth became the god Indra, his arms turned into the warrior caste, his thighs became the common people, and his feet the untouchables
  • All of creation came from him
  • The moon (mind), sun (eye), wind (breath), sky (head), earth (feet), and atmosphere (navel)
  • It is difficult to determine when the caste system originated as this myth is in the Vedic texts (pre-1000BCE)
108
Q

Open class vs Closed class societies

A
  • All stratified societies have mobility of some sort
  • Societies that allow a great deal of mobility are called open-class, those that restrict mobility are closed-class societies
  • Mobility is easier in societies with nuclear families, but more difficult in those with extended because the entire family moves up not just the individual
109
Q

Def: Gender Stratification

A
  • Is the unequal access to wealth, power, prestige
  • Results in a disadvantaged, subordinate position for women
  • Not all societies exhibit this
  • Gender stratification appears with the development of strongly centralized states
  • In Canada today, men and women are considered equal but on average women still earn less than men
  • Lower classes show more gender equality than the upper ones
110
Q

What is the point of view from the Western world vs Muslim women about the hijab?

A

Western World: Seen as a symbol of gender segregation and male domination
Muslim Women:
1. Practical - protects from the elements
2. Privacy - a way to avoid unwanted male attention
3. Religion - requirement of their beliefs
4. Fashion - in Egypt, veiling has become popular as a fashion accessory
5. Conformity - family or culture obliges them to wear it
* Women see hijab as a way to protect men from themselves!

111
Q

What are Harems in the Middle East?

A
  • Women have private areas in the house where unrelated men are not allowed to enter
  • “women’s spaces”
  • Often several brothers will share a house, and their wives have a communal women’s quarters
  • It is seen as a practical arrangement which gives the women privacy
112
Q

Does gender segregation still exist in the Western World?

A
  • Yes!
  • Job stereotyping - men as firefighters, women as nurses
  • Organizational - Masonic lodges restrict their membership to men only, while the women belong to another group
  • Segregated washrooms
113
Q

What methods were created in order to keep discontent of stratification in check?

A
  • Religion promises a better afterlife, or the possibility of reincarnation as a higher status individual
  • One lineage having seniority over another’s or from one group having more prestige than another
  • Ethnic groups can be put into subordinate positions (South Africa)
  • Immigrant groups often find themselves at the bottom of the social hierarchy (Expected to “pay their dues” before climbing the social ladder)
114
Q

Def: Political organization

A

The means a society uses to maintain order internally and manage its affairs with other societies externally

115
Q

Is politics universal?

A

Politics is not universal - some cultures have no durable ranking systems and little aggression

116
Q

What are examples of informal and uncentralized political organizations?

A

Band or tribal level cultures

117
Q

What are examples of formal and centralized political organizations?

A

Chiefdoms and states

118
Q

Political systems require the support of those they “govern” in order to remain in existence. How is this accomplished in:
A) uncentralized systems
B) centralized systems
C) democracies

A

• In uncentralised systems
○ Everyone participates in decision making
○ Loyalty and co-operation are freely given (for the most part)
• Centralized systems
○ Rely more on force and coercion
○ This eventually lessens the system’s effectiveness
• In democracies, legitimacy is conferred by vote

119
Q

Name the three components of politics and describe each one.

A
  1. Power: The ability to bring about the wanted results, usually through persuasion or force
  2. Authority: The right to take action of certain forms based on the individual’s status. Does not rely on the use of force
  3. Influence: Ability to achieve a desired aim by exerting social or moral pressure. Can be used by those of any status level
120
Q

Def: Band/Band Organization

A
  • Tend to be found among food foragers and other nomadic societies where extended families camp together
  • A small group of politically independent but related households
  • Tend to be kin groups
  • Probably the oldest form of political organization
121
Q

How is dispute resolution done in bands?

A
  • Everyone tends to know everyone else which reduces the potential for conflict
  • Getting along is valued
  • Gossip, ridicule, mediation, direct negotiation are used to settle disputes
  • Solutions tend to be those considered just by those involved, not based on rules or laws per se
122
Q

How is leadership a role in bands?

A

• Decisions are made by the consensus of all adult band members rather than a majority
• Leaders obtain that position based on the virtue of their ability (ascribed)
○ Lead only as long as the community is confident in them
○ Cannot force people to abide by their decisions - people follow them as long as it is in their best interest to do so
○ If a leader steps over the line, his followers leave him

123
Q

Def: Tribal organization

A
  • A system involving separate bands or villages integrated by factors such as clans that unite people in separate communities, or by age grades or other associations that cross-cut kinship or territorial boundaries
  • Tribes tend to have some form of herding or farming as their means of subsistence
  • Tend to have one or more sedentary village communities
  • Each group is autonomous until the situation requires them to group together - defence, carrying out a raid on enemies, pooling resources, harvesting a bumper crop
124
Q

How is leadership a role in tribal organizations?

A
  • Leadership is informal
  • Leaders are respected for their wisdom, but cannot enforce decisions and have no formal means of control
  • Can use oratory to persuade
  • Social controls include gossip, criticism, withdrawal of co-operation, belief that antisocial actions cause disease
125
Q

Def: Bigman (Papua New Guinea)

A
  • A village leader who has acquired his personal power via his own merits, such as oratory, magic, courage, hunting, farming, animal husbandry, and exchange of wealth
    • From this personal power, the big man develops a faction of supporters; About 75% of major bigmen are the sons of bigmen
126
Q

Def: Mokas

A
  • Conspicuous generosity through mokas is one way bigmen compete with one another and gain prestige
  • Mokas are formal feasts where gifts are exchanged to create a series of obligations which will produce more mokas
  • Putting on a moka requires at least one wife as it is the results of the women’s production which is given away
127
Q

What is clan organization within tribes?

A
  • An association of people who believe they share a common ancestry
  • Elders or headmen regulate members’ affairs and represent the clan in relations with other clans
  • Elders within a clan may form a council
128
Q

What is a segmentary lineage system within tribes?

A
  • Similar to clan but rarer and less extensive
  • Lineage is broken down into smaller lineages based on how far from the ancestor one is
  • Lineage segments are all equal, but sides are taken based on which one you are most closely related to
129
Q

Who is the Leopard Skin Chief?

A
  • Leopard skin chiefs exist outside the lineages in Nuer Society and can persuade sides to settle rather than fight
  • Fights occur over such things as cattle theft, adultery and watering rights in the dry seasons
  • He has the respect of both groups, but cannot impose settlements
  • He can curse the party who refuses to accept a reasonable settlement
  • The threat is that supernatural forces will help the stubborn party’s enemies if he persists in refusing to settle the dispute
130
Q

What is age-grades organization within tribes?

A

-Youths are initiated into an age-grade
-Pass from one age-grade to another as they grow older and reach the appropriate ages
-This system is used by the Masai of Africa and Sambia of Papua New Guinea ( Boys go to the men’s clubhouse at age 10-12
After they enter the men’s house, boys go through six initiations. These are based on age grade.)

131
Q

What is common interest associations within tribes?

A

Grouping based on common interest

Ex) military societies or warrior’s clubs of Plains Cree in the 19th century

132
Q

Def: Chiefdoms

A
  • A political organization where two or more local groups are organized under a single individual (chief) who is at the head of a ranked hierarchy of people
  • A person’s status is based on how closely related they are to the chief, closer relationship = higher status
  • Office of chief is usually hereditary, passing from the man to his or his sister’s son
133
Q

How is leadership a role in chiefdoms?

A
  • Chief is true authority figure - his rulings must be obeyed
  • Chain of command linking all levels exists = Serves to bind the outlying communities to the center
  • Power is maintained through personal abilities even though the office might be inherited (a semi-sacred position)
  • Chief controls economic activities, and chiefdoms are typically redistributive
  • Chief can amass wealth and pass it to his heirs, as can other high ranking families
134
Q

Who was the Iyalode and what happened to her?

A
  • In Precolonial times, women could reach the rank of Chief of Women among the Yoruba
  • She was the women’s political spokesperson in the highest level of government
  • The only female member of the king’s council
  • An achieved position
  • British colonialists changed her role, removing the iyalode from any positions of power
135
Q

Def: Confederacies

A
  • When several chiefdoms join together, they form a confederacy
  • This is headed by a Chief of Chiefs (Parmanount Chief)
  • The Hawaiians, Iroquois, Cherokee, Algonquins, and Hurons were all confederacies
136
Q

Def: States

A
  • Political power is centralized in a government which may use force to regulate its citizens and deal with foreign states
  • Tend to have large scale intensive agriculture
  • Tend to have larger populations, cities
  • States have institutions - bureaucracy, military, official religion, provide a means for groups to function as a whole
  • States are not permanent - many have arisen and fallen in the last 5000 years
  • States have the ability to delegate authority to maintain order
  • Police, foreign ministries, other bureaucracies are designed to protect citizens
  • Have codified rules for proper behaviour called laws
137
Q

Def: Nations

A
  • A group of people who share a common language, culture, territorial base, political organization, and history
  • Nation and state can be different things, and a state can be seen as being composed of many nations
  • Emerging national movements use cultural symbols and shared history and language as unifying agents
138
Q

Def: Legal anthropology

A
  • Deals specifically with the study of social control and conflict
  • Law is not always a separate institution in a culture, but can be embedded in social life
139
Q

What does “Sitting on a Man” mean?

A
  • If a wife was being abused by her husband and using normal means didn’t solve the problem, Igbo women had an extreme practice they could resort to
  • “Sitting on a man” meant that all the women from the community would come and sit outside the home of the offending husband
  • They would sing offensive songs, make fun of him, and mock his sexual prowess day and night to torment him
  • Women might go on strike and refuse to cook or have sex with their husbands until the grievance was met
  • These measures were usually enough to prompt a resolution in the wife’s favour
140
Q

How are social controls put into effect?

A

• Can be built into individuals internally or exist as external sanctions
• Cultural controls rely on internal built-in deterrents
○ Shame, loss of face
○ Fear of the supernatural for punishment
○ Promises of a pleasant or unpleasant afterlife
•May involve coercion

141
Q

Def: Sanctions

A
  • Sanctions rely on other members of the society taking action towards approved or disproved of behaviour and may involve both cultural and social controls
  • Positive sanctions are used to encourage approved behaviour, while negative sanctions discourage disapproved acts
  • Informal sanctions emphasize cultural control and tend to be spontaneous expressions of disapproval
  • Negative sanctions that are formalized and enforced by an authorized political body are codified as laws
  • Sanctions must be applied consistently in order to be effective
  • Not all societies use laws, and there are ways besides laws to maintain order
142
Q

How are offences dealt with among the Inuit?

A
  • Offences are seen as disputes between individuals
  • They are settled by those involved
  • They may hold a song duel where they heap insults on one another
  • Applause of the spectators determines the outcome
  • If the dispute still isn’t settled, one of the combatants moves to another band
  • There is no legal binding authority in this society
143
Q

How are disputes settled in Western Society?

A
  • Disputes are settled in courts by applying law codes
  • Law codes are social controls that are enforced by overt coercion
  • The aim is to assign guilt and punish the guilty, not to help the victim
  • Offenders are arrested by police, tried by the courts, and might be fined or imprisoned in punishment
  • Victims rarely receive compensation or restitution
144
Q

What are the three functions of law?

A
  1. Defines relationships between members of society by determining proper behaviour under specific circumstances - this tells people how they are to behave
  2. Gives authority to enforce the laws, through coercion if necessary, to the centralized governing authority (government and judiciary system)
    ○ If there is no centralized political control, this authority may be given to the injured party
  3. Functions as a way to redefine social relations and ensure social flexibility - as new situations arise, old rules are re-evaluated and change done as needed
145
Q

Def: Crime

A
  • Crime occurs when people break social norms, even in the face of severe sanctions
  • Crime can be defined as a breach of public rights that affect a community
  • A tort is a civil injury or infringement on an individual
  • Where centralized control doesn’t exist, all offences are viewed as against members of the society
146
Q

What methods were used in Ancient cultures for punishment?

A
  • Corporal (pain on the body) or capital punishment (decapitation of the body)
  • Indentured labour
  • Exile
  • Compensation of the victim or fines
147
Q

How are prisons used today as punishment?

A
  • The concept of prison is a recent development historically
  • Long-term detention of prisoners first appeared in the 1600sCE in Europe
  • After being locked, up they can be rehabilitated whereas before prisons, they thought they weren’t able to change the criminal
148
Q

Mayan Law

A
  • Officials had both civil and judicial duties
  • There was no appeal in Mayan law
  • Penalties were intended to either defer the offenders or compensate the victims
  • Judgment was swift, and sentences were carried out in public as a lesson to the community
  • A thief became the servant of his victim; murderers were put to death; sometimes as part of a ritual sacrifice
  • For minor crimes, a criminal’s hair was cut off as a sign of disgrace
149
Q

Def: Negotiation

A

when the disputing parties reach a settlement between themselves voluntarily

150
Q

Def: Mediation

A

when a settlement is reached with the participation of a third party - the mediator may be able to enable a settlement, but cannot enforce it

151
Q

Adjudication (arbitration)

A

involves an authorized third party who can issue a binding decision that the parties are compelled to accept

152
Q

What does warfare sometimes involve when trying to resolve a conflict?

A

Warfare might involve a series of financially bankrupting displays like the revenge potlatches

153
Q

During the colonial period, laws were imposed which over-rode customary local customs and legal systems. How did this effect the Indigenous people?

A
  • Headhunting, feuding, and polygamy were banned

- This caused considerable confusion when the changes made no sense to the indigenous peoples from a cultural standpoint

154
Q

How was conflict resolved on the Trobriand Island? (*refers to video watched in class)

A
  • Game of Cricket = conflict resolution ritual
  • Europeans introduced cricket on the Trobriand Islands
  • Indigenous people added dance, song, decorations
  • War and competition (dressing up and standing in line)
  • Taunt the batter to make them miss
  • Dancing formations based on army that arrived on the Island
  • Dances based on recent events or ceremonial dances
  • Competitive sport to resolve conflict between two teams
  • Substitutes for violence
  • Home team always “wins” but not by a lot of points
155
Q

Def: Feuding

A
  • Intergroup aggression which involves families, clans, tribes or villages
  • Revenge, tit-for-tat, types of violence can occur for extended periods of time
  • Headhunting in Papua New Guinea is one form of feuding
  • In the Americas, the Hatfield and McCoy feud is legendary
156
Q

Def: Ethnic conflict *

A
  • Arises when one ethnic group attempts to gain more autonomy or equitable treatment
  • Can result from oppression of one group by another
  • Not homogeneous
  • Often competition for access to resources is at the root of the conflict rather than cultural/ethnic differences
157
Q

Def: Revolution

A
  • Conflict involving illegal and often violent means by subordinate groups to change the status-quo
  • Has occurred in modern times and are usually triggered by a series of events
  • Common factors - weak state, military and economic crisis
  • Many are driven by rural participants rather than urban radicals and occur in colonial contexts
158
Q

What are the various conflicts in foraging groups?

A
  • Lethal conflict within and between foraging groups is rare
  • Most (85%) incidents of lethal aggression are between members of the same cultural group, and 36% are within the same band
  • Reasons vary for homicides, but most are due to interpersonal disputes between individuals
  • Some groups can be more prone to conflict than others
  • Men were responsible for 96% of all homicides
159
Q

Def: Warfare

A

• War is a recent development in human history (<10,000 ya)
○ Before that point, cultures did not have to compete ruthlessly for resources
○ In agriculture, land ownership is important
• Differences in world-views may explain this phenomenon
○ Food foragers tend to see themselves as part of the environment and in balance with it
○ Pastoralists and farmers tend to see the world as there to be exploited and dominated

160
Q

Name the various military organizations.

A

• The informal organization in bands is not designed to handle warfare
○ They do not have military leaders and have little cause for them
• Tribes tend to mobilize on an ad hoc basis for raiding
• Chiefdoms are more centralized and have greater access to resources, which allows them to maintain small fighting forces
• States tend to have permanent standing armies and hierarchies to control them

161
Q

What is the First Crusade?

A

• In 1905, Pope Urban II urged the kings and feudal barons of Europe to stop fighting amongst themselves, unite and capture Jerusalem from the Muslims
○ Insisted it was their Christian duty
○ He also implied that there would be economic benefits
• Control of trade with China and looting were as much motivations for those who went on the Crusade as the religious basis was

162
Q

Def: Non-violent conflict

A

• The best example of nonviolent resistance is the model of civil disobedience used by Mahatma Gandhi to bring about political change
• Everyday resistance is common among the disadvantaged; ranges from:
○ Slowed compliance, to
○ Slander, to
○ Theft and arson

163
Q

How is world order maintained?

A
  • The world’s states no longer exist in isolation and have had to learn to live and work together
  • International Court of Justice (The Hague, Netherlands) deals with disputes between states and war crimes
  • United Nations provides an arena for airing disagreements
164
Q

“Religio” and “Superstitio”

A

Religion is derived from the Latin “religio” which refers to an obligation in the sense of piety
Combined with “superstitio”, the Romans used it to refer to non-Roman practices

165
Q

Def: Religion

A
  • The beliefs and patterns of behaviour by which humans try to deal with what they view as important problems that cannot be solved with known technology or organizational techniques
  • People may turn to the manipulation of supernatural beings and powers to overcome these limitations
166
Q

True or false? All cultures have a religion of some sort to explain phenomena in the world around them and to give life meaning.

A

True

167
Q

Who is Sir Edward B. Tylor?

A
  • “The Father of Anthropology”
  • Travelled to Central America in the 1850’s
  • Took extensive notes on what he saw
  • In 1871, “Primitive Culture” was published
  • Led to his appointment as the first professor of anthropology at Oxford University
  • Tylor was influenced by Darwin’s work and proposed that all societies move through stages in a unilinear sequence
168
Q

Sir Edward B. Tylor and his applications to the study of religion

A
  • Tylor believed each generation built on what the previous ones had done
  • Religions moved from simple to more complex with time
  • During Prehistory, religion was a means to explain natural phenomena in an understandable way
  • With time, ancestral spirits and nature spirits appear - Tylor coined the term “animism” for this belief system
  • The next stage was polytheism - multiple gods
  • Monotheism was the highest stage of religious development
169
Q

Who is Sir James Frazer?

A
  • Armchair anthropologist
  • Relied on ancient histories, and reports and questionnaires which he received from around the world
  • Primary area of focus was mythology
  • Author of “The Golden Bough”
  • Frazer’s 12 volume encyclopedia on mythology and religion
  • Like Tyler’s work, promotes the idea of unilinear religious evolution
  • Early religion was based on magical practices aimed at solving practical problems
  • In particular, sympathetic (imitative and contagious) magic was used
  • Frazer proposed that religion replaces early magical practices
  • People start to assign power and control of the natural world to deities in a more “rational” system of beliefs
  • Religious specialists appear when this shift occurs
170
Q

Name some supernatural beings.

A

Gods and goddesses
Ancestral spirits
Other spirits
Impersonal powers

171
Q

Monotheism vs Polytheism

A

One god=monotheism
Many gods=polytheism
-Polytheism tends to have gods assigned to specific roles

172
Q

Def: Pantheons

A
  • Pantheons are collections of gods and goddesses that may grow in size as the gods of conquered or other peoples are added
  • Gods may be arranged in hierarchies
  • Goddesses tend to be prominent in societies where women make a major contribution to the economy
173
Q

Who is Ku in Hawaiian religion?

A
  • Ku’s name means “to stand” or “ to strike”

- He was the god of war to whom human sacrifices were made and also the patron of wood workers

174
Q

Who is Pele in Hawaiian religion?

A
  • Pele is the volcano goddess
  • She has five brothers and eight sister who do her bidding
  • She is known to be capricious and easily offended and appeased
175
Q

Who are Ku’ula-ka, his wife Hina-hele and their son Aiai in Hawaiian religion?

A
  • the gods of fishing
  • Each fisherman also had his own god, a stone or image of his lineage’s guardian spirit, which was prayed to and given offerings
  • Human or fish-shaped stones were either taken fishing or left at home facing the sea
  • Fishing shrines were built overlooking the ocean in hopes that the gods would attract fish to the area
  • Offerings of fish were given when a trip was successful
176
Q

Def: Ancestral Spirits

A
  • Uses the idea that people have a body and a vital spirit that can be separate from the body and lives on after death
  • Deceased ancestors may show an active interest in what happens in their communities and they may even still be considered members of society
  • Ancestor spirits can be generous or spiteful, may enforce proper social behaviour, tend to reflect and reinforce social reality in their actions
  • Belief in these spirits is widespread and tends to occur in lineal descent systems
  • Ancestors may be reborn as new members of their lineage
177
Q

In China, why are sons more important than daughters?

A
  • In China, sons were traditionally very important because one of their responsibilities was to maintain shrines for their ancestral spirits
  • Food, incense and money would be offered to the spirits of parents on the anniversaries of their birth and death
  • For women who marry into their husband’s families, they only become official family members when a tablet with their name in it is placed in the family shrine
178
Q

Def: Animism *

A
  • Sees nature as being animated by all sorts of spirits, not just animals, but plants and places can have spirits
  • These spirits are involved in day to day life and are not remote like gods
  • They can be malevolent, playful, good, bad
  • This belief system tends to appear in food foraging cultures who see themselves as part of rather than apart from nature
179
Q

Def: Animatism * (don’t confuse with animism)

A
  • Belief in an impersonal power that animates things in the world
  • It is itself not physical, but it can reveal itself in the physical world
180
Q

What is Mana in Melanesia?

A
  • Mana can be present in men, wood, trees, animals, stone, or any object large or small
  • Living beings, spirits or men, liberate it and set it free for use through prayer, sacrifice and/or charms
  • Certain things have mana for particular purposes
  • A stone will have mana for making yams grow big
  • A charm might have mana to bring rain
  • A man might have mana because of some spirit whose power he can use
181
Q

What is Mana in Hawaii?

A
  • Power and prestige were defined in terms of mana
  • The gods were the full embodiment of this sacredness
  • Through their family ties to the gods, the nobles also had high mana
  • Commoners possessed little mana and were forbidden to enter any of the holy places where nobles and gods communicated
  • One’s actions could increase or decrease their mana
182
Q

Def: Myths

A
  • Body of stories that explain the system in a manner consistent with how people experience the world they live in
  • All societies have myths, but not all are written down - some are preserved orally
  • A scared story
183
Q

Myths are NOT:

A
  • Falsehoods
  • Simply the stories of the gods of the ancient Greeks or Romans or of other ancient peoples
  • The belief systems of tribal peoples
  • An incorrect form of science
184
Q

What are the issues with myths?

A
  • The study of myth is a complex and controversial one
  • Myths describe creation, explain natural phenomena, and lay ground rules for behaviour
  • They have been interpreted as distorted versions of real events, allegories
  • No single model for analyzing myth fits every culture
185
Q

Who is “the Trickster”?

A
  • The trickster is a mythological being who changes identity from prankster to creator and goes by many names
  • He appears in many cultures and in many guises
  • To the Norse, he was Loki, to North American native peoples, coyote or raven
  • Often he steals fire and gives it to man (Prometheus)
186
Q

Def: Religious specialists

A

• All cultures tend to have individuals who are especially skilled with dealing with supernatural powers
• May also assist other members of their society in doing so
Ex) priests and priestesses; shaman or medicine person

187
Q

What are priests and priestesses?

A
  • Priests and priestesses are full-time religious specialists
  • Tend to be socially initiated, ceremonially inducted members of a recognized religious organization, with a rank and function that are defined
  • Full-time priestess are rare and found in societies where women are economically important
  • This is changing in Western society where women pastors and ministers, while not common, are not rare either
188
Q

Who are the Kahuna in Hawaiian religion?

A
  • Professional kahuna presided at the temples of the chiefs, and kahuna pule oversaw each cult
  • Only they knew the proper rituals for winning the favour of the gods and obtaining the purity necessary to survive
  • The Kahuna were also politically powerful because of their direct contact with the gods and their ability to persuade the gods to intervene
  • Outside of the spiritual realm, kahuna were healers
189
Q

Who are the Kahuna-Nui in the Hawaiian religion?

A
  • The kahuna-nui (high priest) conducted important religious ceremonies, observed and interpreted natural phenomena, performed oracles omens, and advised the king on how to remain in favour with the gods
  • With the collapse of the traditional religion in 1819, the power of the priests was broken and the position of kahuna-nui abolished
  • Today, it is a position with religious but no political power
190
Q

Who is a shaman or medicine person?

A
  • Part-time religious specialists
  • Acquire their religious power individually when a mystery or great power is revealed to them
  • These people receive certain gifts like healing, divination
  • Anyone can become a shaman in many native cultures
  • No formal structure controlling religious practices
  • Trance is an important component of the ritual
  • May wield great influence but if they consistently fail, they may be driven out or killed
191
Q

What are the perceptions and reality of shamans?

A
  • The romantic view of the shaman is of an exotic practitioner who bridges the divide between the real world and the supernatural
  • For every individual, in each culture, experiences are different
  • Shamanism is based in the experience of altered states of consciousness
192
Q

How was shamanism invented?

A
  • Many of the perceptions we have about shamanism are Western inventions
  • Shaman were poorly documented and discussed more as stereotypes than with a basis in reality
  • At the worst, shaman were described as practitioners of “primitive” animistic religions (Tylor, Frazer)
193
Q

Where is shamanism found?

A
  • North and South America
  • Siberia, parts of Asia
  • Polynesia
  • Africa
  • Tends to be associated with hunter-gatherers
  • In environments where survival can be difficult, the shaman acts as a mediator between his group and the spirit world
194
Q

Def: Anthropomorphism

A

• Upper Palaeolithic cave art
• Anthropomorphic figures are common
• Similar to those from the ethnographic record depicting shamans accessing their animal spirits
Ex) Grotte Chauvet Pont d’Arc Southern France: The Sorcerer or Bison Man
○ Bison’s head/shoulders
○ Forelimb ends with human arms and hand; human legs

195
Q

How is a shaman trained?

A
  • A shaman’s ability to contact spirits might be inherited or he/she may be selected by the spirits after a traumatic incident (illness or accident)
  • To accept the power or not is the individual’s choice
  • The spirits act as tutors, but most shaman also learn from an older, more experienced shaman as well
  • Songs, music, clothing/styles, rituals, etc are all learned during a shaman’s lifetime
196
Q

How can a shaman alter his or her state of consciousness?

A 
• Altered states can be induced by using
		○ Plants or fungi
		○ Alcohol
		○ Tobacco 
		○ Rhythmic drumming
		○ Hyperventilation (deprivation of oxygen)
		○ Meditation
		○ Food deprivation
The type of state of mind isn’t important, but how it enables the shaman to communicate with the spirits
197
Q

How do religions manipulate the supernatural?

A
  • Religions tend to have prayers, songs, offerings, sacrifices - ways people manipulate the supernatural into doing what they want
  • Rituals are a means by which people relate to the sacred
198
Q

Def: Ritual

A
  • Rituals are public events performed in sacred places or designated times
  • Ritual can be religious or nonreligious in nature
  • Ceremony, festivals, sports, etc. All have rituals but are not religious in nature
  • In general, ritual is a formalized, socially prescribed symbolic behaviour
  • What is done is predictable
  • It occurs under a set of circumstances
  • The acts which take place are symbolic in nature
  • Ritual can accomplish a specific goal
  • Ritual changes a person’s status, appeases the gods
  • It also expresses the worldview of the group and communicates those to the group primarily with vocal language
  • Typically, social meanings are what is conveyed
199
Q

Name the rites of passage.

A 
Birth
Puberty
Marriage
Parenthood
Advancement to higher class/status
Death
200
Q

Who is Arnold van Gennep?

A
  • Coined the term “rites of passage”
  • Was the first to recognize three stages in rituals - separation, transition and incorporation
  • All cultures have some way to mark important transitions from one status to another
  • Typically it is milestones in physical maturity which are associated with rites of passage
201
Q

Name and explain the three stages in the ceremony around each rite of passage.

A
  • separation, transition, incorporation
  • Separation removes the person from society
  • Transition isolates the person between separation and incorporation, there may be rituals involved, learning things needed for the new status, etc
  • Incorporation brings the person back into society in his/her new status
202
Q

How do the Australian Aborigines initiate young boys into manhood?

A
  • When the men decide boys are ready to be initiated into manhood, they are removed from the village while the women make a show of resistance (separation)
  • They are taken to a secret location where rituals are performed that finish with circumcision or tooth removal (transition)
  • On returning home, the boys (now men) are welcomed with further ceremonies which recognize their new status (incorporation)
203
Q

How does a Muslim gain the title of haji?

A

• When a Muslim goes on pilgrimage he separates from his society and dresses in a proscribed manner to set himself apart
• During his journey to Mecca and while there performing the required rituals, he is in transition
• After he returns home, he is given the title haji
Pilgrimages are present in many other religions

204
Q

Def: Rites of Intensification

A
  • rites that mark crises in the life of a group rather than individual
  • Can be things like a lack of rain, famine, appearance of an enemy
  • Mass ceremonies are performed to allay the danger from the group, restore the balance
  • Deaths sometimes have a huge impact on a group and may fit into this category (human sacrifice)
205
Q

How is Ndembu healing an example of rites of intensification?

A
  • Illness or misfortune often exposed other social problems in a village as the affliction of the body reflected those
  • Ritual was used to both cure the patient and settle the conflict
  • As healing rites were public events with many in attendance, more than just individual disputes could be dealt with
206
Q

Where is ritual cannibalism practiced?

A
  • Among some Melanesian and Brazilian native peoples, cannibalism of the deceased was part of the funerary rite
  • It was seen as an act of reverence and a way to maintain a tie to the deceased or to enable their soul to continue as part of the group
  • Symbolic cannibalism is present in Christianity
  • Hawaiians practiced this not for food but an act of religious rite
207
Q

Why was their human sacrifice in Hawaii? How?

A
  • Performed at a luakini at the death of a high chief, dedication of a luakini, when success in combat was requested, or when a very grave state emergency, such as pestilence or famine required the Ku be asked for aid
  • 2-20 victims were taken from among captives, those breaking taboos or those who offended the ali’I
  • Many were blind, maimed, or crippled persons
  • It was one way that ali’I could remove rivals as victims were often their relatives
  • Sometimes they were dispatched with a club, and their bodies dragged to the altar
  • More often they were bound and taken alive into the luakini and killed in the outer court
  • The priests were careful to avoid touching the bodies
  • Once dead, victims were laid in a row with their faces down on the altar and left to decay there

ANTH 1220 (3 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions