Final Exam Information Flashcards
2 main causes of bronchodilation?
- Circulating catecholamines such as epinephrine and norepinephrine
- Non-parasympathetic nerve releases vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and NO
What type of G-protein binds with Beta 2 receptors after episode and norepinephrine stimulation to cause bronchodilation?
Gs protein
7 steps of bronchoconstriction starting with CN X innervation of airway smooth muscle?
- CNX innervating airway smooth muscle
- Cholinergic nerve endings release Act to muscarinic receptor-3
- M3 is coupled of Gq protein
- Activated Gq protein activates phospholipase C (PLC)
- PLC activates inositol triphosphate (IP3) - 2nd messenger
- IP3 stimulates calcium release from SR
- Increased calcium leads to bronchoconstriction
What type of response does coughing, allergy and infection cause?
Inflammatory response mediated by IgE
6 mediators of bronchoconstriciton
- Cytokines
- Complement
- Bradykinin
- Platelet activtating factors
- Histamine
- Leukotrienes
What do non-cholinergic C fibers release that cause bronchoconstriction?
- Substance P
- Neurokinin A
- Calcitonin gene related peptide
What type of pattern do COPD patients show on PFT?
Obstructive pattern
Describe the pathology behind COPD
Pathologic deterioration in elasticity or recoil within the lung parenchyma, which normally maintains the airways in an open position
What are the airways of COPD patients predisposed to?
Collapse during exhalation
What occurs with the gas velocity in COPD patients?
Increase in gas velocity in narrowed bronchiole, which lowers pressure inside the bronchiole and further favors airway collapse
What does bronchospasm and obstruction result from with COPD patients?
Increased pulmonary secretions
3 major characteristics of COPD patients?
- Chronic cough
- Progressive exercise limitation
- Expiratory airflow obstruction
Patho behind Chronic Bronchitis? (Goblet cells and ciliary 5)
- Increased mucous production
- Loss of mucociliary clearance
- Carina = cough
- Inflammation causing more irritation
- Air trapping
Patho behind Emphysema
- Damage to collagen and elastin fibers
- Airway almost collapse
- Lung fibrosis and loss of elastic recoil is landmark sign of emphysema
- SOB
Risk factors for COPD (4)
- Tobacco = primary
- Occupational exposure to dust; indoor and outdoor pollution
- Respiratory infection
- Genetic factors causing reduction in alpha 1 antitrypsin causing the enzyme to be too large
Clinical profile of COPD patients (9)
- Progressive dyspnea
- Chronic cough - mucous secretions
- SOB
- Expiratory airflow obstruction increases in severity
- Decreased breath sounds
- Expiratory wheezes
- Increased A-P diameter
- Hyperinflation in chest x-ray
- Use of accessory muscles
PaCO2 characteristics of Emphysema
Normal to decreased
PaCO2 characteristics of Chronic Bronchitis
Increased
Mechanism of airway obstruction for Chronic Bronchitis
Decreased airway lumen due to mucus and inflammation
Mechanism of airway obstruction for Emphysema
Loss of elastic recoil
Hematocrit in Chronic Bronchitis patients
increased
Hematocrit in Emphysema patients
normal
Diffusing capacity in Chronic Bronchitis patients
normal
Diffusing capacity in Emphysema patients
decreased
Cor pulmonale severity in Chronic Bronchitis
Marked
Cor pulmonale severity in Emphysema
Mild
Prognosis of Chronic Bronchitis patients
Poor
Prognosis of Emphysema patients
Good
PaO2 characteristics in Chronic Bronchitis
Marked decrease (blue bloater)
PaO2 characteristics in Emphysema
Modest decrease (pink puffer)
Dyspnea in Chronic Bronchitis
Moderate
Dyspnea in Emphysema
Severe
FeV1 of Chronic Bronchitis and Emphysema patients?
Decreased
4 characteristics of the PFT of a COPD patient?
- Derease FEV1/FVC ratio
- Greater decrease in the forced expiratory flow between 25% and 75% of vital capacity
- Increased residual volume
- Normal to increased FRC and total lung capacity
Why do we see an increased residual volume with COPD patients?
Due to slowing of expiratory airflow and gas trapping being prematurely closed airways
What capacity is either normal or decreased in COPD patients?
Vital capacity
Treatment of COPD (5)
- Smoking cessation (primary)
- Oxygen supplementation
- Bronchodilators are the mainstay of drug therapy for COPD
- Anticholingergic drugs show greater effect than B2 agonists
- Inhaled corticosteroids
What is the goal of supplemental oxygen administration for COPD patients?
Achieve a PaO2 between 60-80mmHg
3 factors required for home oxygen supplementation for COPD patients
- PaO2 < 55mmHg
- Hct >55%
- Evidence of cor pulmonale
Effect of bronchodilators in COPD patients
Small increase in FEV1 but may alleviate symptoms by decreasing hyperinflation and dyspnea
What is more effective in asthma treatment, B2 agonists or anticholinergics?
B2 agonists
When would broad-spectrum antibiotics be helpful in COPD patients?
Acute episode of increased dyspnea associated with excessive or purulent sputum production
When should diuretic therapy be considered for COPD patients?
Those with cor pulmonale and right ventricular failure with peripheral edema
What are we looking for preoperatively when getting an ABG on a COPD patient?
baseline CO2 and HCO3
3 related risk factors for complications with COPD patients undergoing surgical procedures?
- Operative site near the diaphragm
- > 3 hour surgical time
- Muscle relaxants can disrupt normal respiratory muscles
Which drugs do we avoid using with COPD patients undergoing surgical procedures?
Those that release histamine
Why do we wait for adequate depth of anesthesia before direct laryngoscopy of COPD patients?
They have a hyperactive airway!
5 patient related risk factors of postoperative pulmonary complications
- Age > 60 years
- ASA class 2 and higher
- CHF
- Preexisting pulmonary disease (COPD)
- Smoker
4 procedure related risk factors of postoperative pulmonary complication
- Emergency surgery
- Abdominal or thoracic surgery, head and neck surgery, neurosurgery, vascular/aortic aneurysm surgery
- Prolonged duration of anesthesia > 2.5 hours
- General anesthesia
Test predictors of postoperative pulmonary complication
Albumin level of < 3.5g/dL
4 Postoperative procedures utilized to prevent postoperative pulmonary complications?
- Deep-breathing exercises
- Incentive spirometry
- Selective NG tube
- Postoperative pain control
What type of anesthesia best reduces the risk of postoperative pulmonary complications?
Regional
Which volatile is the best to use with COPD patients?
Sevo
Why do we caution using Des in COPD patients?
because it is irritable to airway
What do we consider using prior to tracheal manipulation in COPD patients? (4)
Inhaled anticholinergics are numero uno, beta-agonists, inhaled or IV steroids, IV lidocaine
6 Ventilator Management considerations for COPD patients
- Warm and humid fresh gas for long cases
- Tidal volume of 6-8 mL/kg
- Slow respiratory rates (6-10BPM) provide sufficient time for complete exhalation to occur to minimize air trapping
- Avoid hyperventilation
- Desflurane causes airway irritation
- Ensure complete reversal before extubation
4 considerations for the emergence phase of COPD patients
- Full reversal of neuromuscular blockers
- Rapid shallow breaths of low tidal volume
- Awake intubation
- Prevent patient from coughing
4 Preoperative risk-reduction strategies to prevent pulmonary complications
- Smoking cessation for at least 6 weeks
- Treat evidence of expiratory airflow obstruction
- Treat respiratory infection with antibiotics
- Initiate patient education regarding lung volume expansion maneuvers
3 intraoperative risk-reduction strategies to prevent pulmonary complications
- Use minimally invasive surgery techniques when possible
- Consider regional anesthesia
- Avoid surgical procedures likely to last longer than 3 hours
2 Postoperative risk-reduction strategies to prevent pulmonary complications
- Institue lung volume expansion maneuvers such as deep breathing and incentive spirometry or CPAP
- Maximize analgesia
What is restrictive lung disease characterized by?
reduced lung compliance and lung volumes
Intrinsic causes of restrictive lung disease?
inflammation or scarring of the lung parenchyma
Examples of pathology that leads to intrinsic causes of restrictive lung disease?
pulmonary fibrosis, aspiration pneumonia, pulmonary edema
Extrinsic causes of restrictive lung disease?
disorders of the pleura, diaphragm, or chest wall that limit lung expansion
Examples of pathology that leads to extrinsic causes of restrictive lung disease?
COPD
Pathophysiology of restrictive lung disease?
reduces compliance of the lung, pleura, diaphragm or chest wall
How does the pathophysiology behind restrictive lung disease effect the work of breathing?
Increases work of breathing, causing rapid but shallow breathing
What is the effect of hyperventilation in patients with restrictive lung disease?
Keeps the PaCO2 at normal levels until the restrictive disorder is very severe
When is gas exchange effected in restrictive lung disease?
When the disease is advanced
Describe scoliosis
Lateral curvature with rotation of the vertebral column
Describe kyphosis
anterior flexion of the vertebral column
What would severe deformities in kyphoscoliosis lead to?
Chronic alveolar hypoventilation, hypoxemia, pulmonary hypertension, and cor pulmonale
What would be considered severe deformity in kyphoscoliosis?
scoliotic angle > 100 degrees
When is respiratory failure most likely to occur in patients with kyphoscoliosis?
Those with a vital capacity of less than 45% of the predicted value and a scoliotic angle of more than 110 degrees
What are patients with severe kyphoscoliois at increased risk of developing?
Pneumonia and hypoventilation when exposed to central nervous system depressant drugs
What type of approach do we use when administering regional blocks in the kyphoscoliotic patients?
paramedian approach
What do we know about patients who have supplemental oxygen before they get to the OR?
They will de-sat quickly and require minimal preoperative sedation
By how much should you increase your FiO2 for every L oxygen from NC a patient is on?
3-4% increase in FiO2
Universal color of oxygen tank
green
Universal color of nitrous oxide tank?
blue
Universal color of air tank?
yellow
Service pressure psi of oxygen tank?
1,900 psi
Service pressure psi of nitrous oxide tank?
745 psi
Service pressure psi of air tank?
1,900 psi
What is the pressure in an oxygen cylinder directly proportional to?
the volume of oxygen in the cylinder
When do nitrous oxide tanks start to lose psi?
Nitrous oxide tanks will not lose psi until the tank is 75% consumed
What label do we read to figure out the pressure in a tank of gas?
the E cylinder, not the wall outlet
Describe Biot’s respiration, i.e. ataxic respirator (4)
- Periodic breathing because the presence of apnea
- Poor prognosis
- Neuron damage
- 2-4 equal breaths, apnea, 2-4 equal breaths
Describe cheyne-stokes respirator (4)
- Periodic breathing with gradual hyperpnea/hypopnea and apnea
- sleep/hypoxemia/drugs
- Hypoperfusion of the respiratory centers in the brain
- Gradual increase in tidal volume and the apnea
Describe kussmauls breathing (3)
- Metabolic acidosis
- Hyperpnea
- rapid, deep, labored breathing
Causes of kussmauls breathings?
K = Ketones (DKA) U = uremia S = sepsis S = salicylates M = Methanol A = Aldehydes (U) L = Lactic acid
4 things we would seen on inspection of patients with pulmonary issues?
- Hyperpnea: Increased rate and tidal volume
- Hyperventilation
- Cyanosis: deoxyhgb is 5gm/dL
- Clubbing of the fingers, especially in those with cardiovascular disease
Characteristic chest-xray of emphysema would show?
hyperinflation of the chest and increased anterior/posterior diameter
What does a normal lung transmit upon palpation?
Palpable vibratory sensation (fremitus) to the chest wall
Describe palpation of the lungs
Place the ulnar aspects of both hands firmly against either side of the chest while the patients says the words “Ninety-nine”
Describe fremitus when consolidation such as pneumonia is present?
Will be pronounced over the lung with pneumonia
Describe fremitus when a patient has a pleural effusion
fremitus over an effusion will be decreased
3 descriptors of the percussion procedure for the lungs
- Generates audible sounds and vibrations
- Determines whether underlying tissue is filled with air or fluid
- Starts at apex, progressively from top to bottom
What tone does normal percussion give?
resonance
What tone does a pneumothorax give when percussing the lungs?
hyper resonance
4 common errors auscultating the lungs
- listening through patients gown
- attempting to auscultate in a noisy room
- interpreting chest hair sounds as adventitious lung sounds
- auscultating only convenient areas
Location of vesicular breath sounds?
majority of lungs
location of broncho-vesicular breath sounds?
near the main stem bronchi
Location of bronchial breath sounds?
over the trachea
Expiratory pitch and intensity of vesicular breath sounds
Pitch: low
Intensity: soft
Expiratory pitch and intensity of broncho-vesicular breath sounds
Pitch: medium
Intensity: medium
Expiratory pitch and intensity of bronchial breath sounds
Pitch: high
Intensity: usually loud