Final Exam - Cumulative

Question 1

most executive functions have been associated with which part of the brain?

Answer 1

prefrontal cortex

Question 2

are the boundaries of the prefrontal cortex within the frontal well or poorly defined?

Answer 2

poorly defined

Question 3

miller and cohen suggest that the PFC serves to enforce rules that are ___ to a given situation
-ex. it’s ok to wipe food off your child’s mouth, but not your uber driver’s mouth

Answer 3

appropriate

Question 4

the PFC also manages ____ to the rules
-ex. it’s ok (heroic even) to grab a stranger’s arm and yank them (if they’re about to step in front of a bus)

Answer 4

exceptions

Question 5

relative positions of regions within the PFC:

___ = toward midline

Answer 5

medial

Question 6

relative positions of regions within the PFC:

___ = away from midline

Answer 6

lateral

Question 7

relative positions of regions within the PFC:

___ = toward back (or top of head)

Answer 7

dorsal

Question 8

relative positions of regions within the PFC:

___ = toward belly (or jaw of head)

Answer 8

ventral

Question 9

connectivity tracing studies reveal distinct ___ and ___ PFC networks, along with overlapping regions of shared connectivity

Answer 9

lateral and medial

Question 10

___ PFC networks support: “general purpose peerceptual-motor preparatory, goal monitoring”

Answer 10

lateral PFC networks

Question 11

___ PFC networks support: “emotion/memory integration, physical awareness”

Answer 11

medial PFC networks

Question 12

true or false: both PFC networks depend on “motor control, conflict monitoring”

Answer 12

true

Question 13

brain lesion data links ___ PFC damage with a lack of action, initiative, and planning

Answer 13

lateral

Question 14

patients respond OK to questions, show normal-ish IQ, but fail to prepare for the future, stick to a task, or maintain attention for longer than a few moments. if left alone, they sit down and don’t initiate any action at all

Answer 14

dysexecutive syndrome

Question 15

___ PFC damage is linked with excessive, impulsive action, without self awareness

Answer 15

medial PFC damage

Question 16

people with damage to the medial aspects of the PFC typically show ___ syndrome

Answer 16

disinhibition syndrome

Question 17

deficits in controlling aspects of behavior
-they have problems integrating emotional information into decision making processes
-they are unaware of their inappropriate behavior, and appear manic, impulsive, and disorganized

Answer 17

disinhibition syndrome

Question 18

____ medial PFC lesions can lead to bizarre behavior that is overly influenced by contextual cues
-these “environmental dependency” patients primarily react to whatever is around them, without any appreciation of social rulees

Answer 18

anterior medial PFC

Question 19

ex. of anterior medial PFC lesions

Answer 19

walking into a room in which there is a picture leaning against the wall, along with a hammer and some nails - the person will immediately start hanging up the photo

Question 20

a common method of evoking rule conflict in the lab

Answer 20

stroop task

Question 21

true or false: relating and resolving conflicting rules is associated with a well functioning dorsomedial PFC

Answer 21

true

Question 22

the ___ PFC is strongly linked to working memory, which involves the maintenance and manipulation of relevant information, along with the exclusion of irrelevant information

Answer 22

dorsolateral PFC (DLPFC)

Question 23

do we see little or lots of evidence for DLPFC activity in working memory tasks in fMRI studies?

Answer 23

lots of

Question 24

an alternative model by Cowan suggests that working memory is just the subset of ___ long term memory items (and conceptually associated items) that have been used in the last few minutes

Answer 24

genetic

Question 25

alternative model proposed by Cowan: this smaller subset of all items in working memory are capable of being manipulated by the “central executive” - or ___

Answer 25

consciousness

Question 26

the ___ also contributes to working memory

Answer 26

basal ganglia

Question 27

a series of paired objects are presented, and your task is to decide if one of them matches the last set

Answer 27

dynamic working memory task

Question 28

is the basal ganglia enhanced or hindered by difficult working memory trials?

Answer 28

enhanced

Question 29

is rule learning handled solely in the prefrontal cortex?

Answer 29

no ; the basal ganglia makes a real contribution

Question 30

is there evidence for distinct PFC-basal-ganglia-thalamic networks that support “executive” functions within motor, cognitive, and emotional domains?

Answer 30

yes

Question 31

motor loop (3 components)

Answer 31

1. primary motor
2. premotor
3. supplementary motor cortex

Question 32

prefrontal loop

Answer 32

dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

Question 33

affective loop (2 components)

Answer 33

anterior cingulate and orbitofrontal cortex

Question 34

language is most strongly associated with which two areas of the brain?

Answer 34

left IFG (broca’s area) and L posterior auditory association cortex (wernicke’s area)

Question 35

broca’s area

Answer 35

left IFG

Question 36

wernicke’s area

Answer 36

L posterior auditory association cortex

Question 37

relationship between broca’s area and wernicke’s area

Answer 37

densely interconnected, but independently support different aspects of language processing

Question 38

damage to broca’s area

Answer 38

production deficits

Question 39

damage to wernicke’s area

Answer 39

comprehension deficits

Question 40

aprosodia (“robotic speech”) results from ___ hemisphere damage

Answer 40

right hemisphere

Question 41

efficient language processing is strongly dependent on ___ we generate about upcoming words within a sentence
-this greatly speeds our ability to process language

Answer 41

expectations

Question 42

if we present folks with a series of words, we can see an ERP that appears after a word that doesn’t meet these expectations, an ____
-this is distinct from the P300 ERP

Answer 42

N400

Question 42

only ___ based violations trigger the N400

Answer 42

meaning-based

Question 42

____ deviance (ex. a different font, or spoken by a different person) evoke a P300-like ERP

Answer 42

non-semantic

Question 43

the bigger the deviation, the larger the ___

Answer 43

N400

Question 43

any given language is made up of just ___ to ___ phones (or speech sounds)

Answer 43

30-100

Question 44

there are only around ___ phones in all languages

Answer 44

200

Question 45

infants lose the ability to distinguish phones outside their native language by ~___ years of age

Answer 45

~2

Question 46

what is perceived when someone hears a phone

Answer 46

phoneme

Question 47

language is not just auditory. we use both the sound and the sight of someone speaking to decipher language. when the sight doesn’t match the sound, we often perceive a third phoneme, not actually present in either modality

Answer 47

the mcgurk effect

Question 47

when did language emerge in human evolution?

one popular model suggests that our refined speech ability may be due in part to a genetic mutation (____) that happened after humans split from other primates, ~7 million years ago
-we share this gene with all mammals, but ours contain two copies, and this distinction may partially underly our language abilities

Answer 47

FOXP2

Question 48

in humans without a second FOXP2 copy, is language ability seriously (and specifically) enhanced or compromised?

Answer 48

compromised

Question 49

darwin’s model of evolved traits is based on ___ - the slow, continuous refinement of traits, with each tweak providing a fitness benefit

Answer 49

gradualism

Question 50

in contrast, darwin considered human language to have emerged ___, as a result of coincidental genetic mutations in vocal and brain anatomy

Answer 50

suddenly

Question 51

ghazanfar and others review data suggesting that language could have evolved more gradually (maybe other primates’ language is better than we think)
-specifically, he presents evidence for three features:

Answer 51

1. its audiovisual nature (it involves facial cues)
2. its rhythmicity (speech timing, meter)
3. its turntaking pattern (conversation coordination)

Question 52

the audiovisual nature of speech:

both humans and macaques respond faster to ___ audio-visual “speech” stimuli than audio or video alone

Answer 52

combined

Question 53

the rhythmicity of speech:

macaque and human vocalizations have a very similar (and rapid) ___, around 5 per second (HZ)

Answer 53

tempo

Question 54

a typical speech interaction among people consists of vocal exchanges, gaps of silence, and minimal interruptions
-correspondence in back-and-forth timing between human speech and marmoset vocal ‘conversations’

Answer 54

turn taking pattern of speech

Question 55

lots of research shows that just two dimensions describe most of people’s conscious response to emotional things

Answer 55

pleasure and arousal

Question 56

LPP

Answer 56

late positive potential

Question 57

one of the most reliable effects in human emotion neuroscience is the strong enhancement of a long-lasting ERP called the ___ during emotional scene perception

Answer 57

LPP

Question 58

the LPP is strongly correlated (~0.95) with the ___ ratings of a scene (not pleasantness)

Answer 58

arousal ratings

Question 59

EPN

Answer 59

early posterior negativity

Question 60

the EPN effect is strongest for emotional scenes, but can be evoked by emotional hand gestures, faces, and even emotional ___ (a little)

Answer 60

words

Question 61

separate from emotion, the EPN is enhanced by ‘simple’ scenes
-the more complicated the scene, the ___ the EPN

Answer 61

weaker

Question 62

the EPN is often larger for ___ compared to unpleasant scenes, but not the reverse

Answer 62

larger for pleasant

Question 63

the ___ still showed a ‘pleasure’ bias, where the LPP did not

Answer 63

EPN

Question 64

victory scenes modulated the EPN well, but nothing like erotica
-we can’t conclude that the EPN shows a pleasure bias
-this suggests a ___-specific enhancement of the EPN

Answer 64

sex-specific

Question 65

was thee EEPN larger or smaller for nudists than erotica?

Answer 65

larger

Question 66

EPN modulation: a body part bias?

it appears that the scenes showing the most recognizable, upright bodies tend to drive the ___ EPNs

Answer 66

strongest

Question 67

the EPN effect replicated

-the largest EPN was evoked by ___ scenes, followed by ___
-this order ___ for the LPP ; largest for erotica, followed by nudists, then mutilations/anim threat

Answer 67

nudist ; erotica ; flips

Question 68

___ reflects emotion, complexity, and the presence of upright bodies
-our visual systems may be tuned to quickly identify obvious signs of people around us
-may actually include multiple overlapping processees

Answer 68

EPN

Question 69

___ reflects the intensity of our conscious emotional response to whatever is around us
-it does not reflect complexity, body parts, etc. (only that it’s emotional)

Answer 69

LPP

Question 70

what brain mechanisms drive these ERP arousal effects?
-work in rats and primates suggests that this enhancement may be driven by feedback from the ___

Answer 70

amygdala

Question 71

the density of structural connectivity between amygdala and ventral visual cortex reveals heavy ___ connections from amygdala to visual cortex (feedforward path)

Answer 71

feedback

Question 72

we argue that the ventral visual pathway is a ___ and ___ interactive occipitotemporal network linking early visual areas and the anterior IT cortex (aIT) along multiple routes through which visual information is processed

Answer 72

recurrent and highly interactive

Question 73

the amygdala ___ back to almost every area in the occipitotemporal network…
-the precise nature of the modulatory signals arising from the amygdala remains unknown, but such diffusely distributed signals are likely to direct attentional resources to the processing of visual stimuli signaling potential danger or other emotionally intense events

Answer 73

projects back

Question 74

in monkeys and humans, the amygdala shows a burst of emotion-linked activity ~___ms after the presentation of visual emotional cue
-the timing of this amygdala reactivity strongly suggests that it registers emotion before or after visual cortical processing is complete?

Answer 74

~150 ms ; after

Question 75

using standard fMRI, we found that activity in amygdala and late-stage visual fusiform gyrus (IT) are ___ correlated (0.95)

Answer 75

strongly

Question 76

the time point at which brain activity is reliably enhanced for emotional scenes is ___ seconds

Answer 76

3.9 seconds

Question 77

emotional scenes enhanced activity in late-stage ventral visual cortex and amygdala ~___ second earlier than mid-stage visual cortex

Answer 77

~1 second

Question 78

FP network discriminates emotional scenes before or after amygdala and FG?

Answer 78

after

Question 79

Granger analyses showed that the amygdala, OFC, and FG are all influencing each other ___ in ___ directions

Answer 79

equally ; both

Question 80

the entire visual system (outside V1) is enhanced by ___ stimuli

Answer 80

emotional

Question 81

rapid fMRI data suggests that amygdala and FG ___ this emotional discrimination

Answer 81

initiate

Question 82

other emotion-sensitive regions (like FP network, OFC) may be “___” of the emotional quality of stimuli from amygdala and FG

Answer 82

“informed”

Question 83

fMRI work on emotional perception supports a “___ feedback” model of emotional perception

Answer 83

“reentrant feedback”

Question 84

initial discrimination (first feedback wave) = ___ shift

Answer 84

EPN

Question 85

second discrimination is more consistent with ___

Answer 85

LPP

Question 86

a major goal of cognitive neuroscience is to define the relationships between ___

Answer 86

brain structure, brain function, and “consciousness”

Question 87

brain structure pertains to:

Answer 87

distinct units (how they’re connected)

Question 88

brain function pertains to:

Answer 88

how the units of the brain operate in real time

Question 89

consciousness refers to:

Answer 89

an emergent property of brain function

Question 90

what does EEG stand for?

Answer 90

electroencephalography

Question 91

electroencephalography (EEG) provides excellent ____ resolution, but poor ____ resolution

Answer 91

temporal ; spatial (when but not exactly where)

Question 92

millisecond time resolution is characteristic of which noninvasive method?

Answer 92

electroencephalography (EEG)

Question 93

what does fMRI stand for?

Answer 93

functional magnetic resonance imaging

Question 94

fMRI provides excellent ___ resolution, but poor ___ resolution

Answer 94

spatial ; temporal (where, but not exactly when)

Question 95

cognitive neuroscience was born from the combination of three related fields of research on the brain and behavior:

Answer 95

cognitive psychology, neurology, and neurophysiology/neuroimaging

Question 96

how the brain works in healthy folks

Answer 96

cognitive psychology

Question 97

cognitive psychology data was explicitly ___ based

Answer 97

behavior (avoids brain)

Question 98

how brain damage affects behavior in clinical patients

Answer 98

neurology

Question 99

neurology data was ___ based

Answer 99

deficit (brain-behavior linked)

Question 100

how healthy brains work in animal models, later including humans with the development of noninvasive brain recording methods

Answer 100

neurophysiology/neuroimaging

Question 101

true or false: despite lots of investigation, there is little agreement about what consciousness is, and how it might be studied

Answer 101

true

Question 102

over the last ~2 million years, the human cortex has nearly ____ in size

Answer 102

tripled

Question 103

cortex = ___

Answer 103

cerebral cortex

Question 104

the cortex consists of mostly ____ tissue

Answer 104

homogeneous

Question 105

the cortex is greatly ____ in primates and is critical to (but not sufficient for) “____” cognition

Answer 105

expanded ; “higher-order”

Question 106

“subcortex” refers to

Answer 106

everything else in the brain

Question 107

cerebellum, thalamus, basal ganglia, amygdala, hippocampus, midbrain, brainstem, etc

Answer 107

subcortex

Question 108

the subcortex is ___ in size and internal structure

Answer 108

variable

Question 109

the subcortex is similar in ____ and ____ with other mammals

Answer 109

structure and function

Question 110

is the subcortex also essential to higher order cognition?

Answer 110

yes

Question 111

what are the three main components of the cortical surface?

Answer 111

gyrus, sulcus, and fissure

Question 112

rounded protrusion of surface cortex (“mountain”)

Answer 112

gyrus

Question 113

depression in surface cortex (“valley”)

Answer 113

sulcus

Question 114

a particularly deep sulcus

Answer 114

fissure

Question 115

___/___ of cortical surface is hidden in sulci and fissures (sulci within sulci)

Answer 115

2/3

Question 116

cortical folding refers to cortical “___”

Answer 116

cortical “packaging”

Question 117

cortical folding allows _____, and (maybe) speeds cortical processing time by keeping all brain regions relatively close together

Answer 117

lots of tissue in a small space

Question 118

4 cortical lobes:

Answer 118

1. frontal lobe
2. parietal lobe
3. temporal lobe
4. occipital lobe

Question 119

the boundary region between cortical and subcortical structures located between the frontal lobe and temporal lobe

Answer 119

insula

Question 120

the ____ cortex is where the first stage of cortical processing occurs

Answer 120

the “primary sensory” cortex

Question 121

V1 =

Answer 121

primary visual cortex

Question 122

V2 =

Answer 122

primary auditory corteex

Question 123

S1 =

Answer 123

sensory

Question 124

M1 =

Answer 124

motor

Question 125

this view states that the thalamus relays sensory and motor signals up to the cortical processing areas, and downstream to the brainstem (except smell)

Answer 125

classic view

Question 126

recent work has identified that the structure of the thalamus is mostly (~80%) connections from one region of the cortex to another region of the cortex

Answer 126

modern view

Question 127

the thalamus is heavily involved in ___ connections

Answer 127

cortico-cortical

Question 128

rather than primarily carrying sensory input to cortex, and motor signals out to the body (“first order” connections”), the thalamus is instead heavily involved in cortico-cortical connections, which are referred to as ____

Answer 128

“higher order” connections

Question 129

firing modes appear to enhance (____) or inhibit (____) the ‘quality of a connection between brain regions

Answer 129

burst ; tonic

Question 130

the firing mode is changed by relatively long periods of ___ or ___ input from brain stem and cortex

Answer 130

excitatory ; inhibitory

Question 131

two divisions of the nervous system

Answer 131

peripheral and central

Question 132

the autonomic nervous system is part of the ___ nervous system

Answer 132

peripheral

Question 133

two components of the autonomic nervous system

Answer 133

sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

Question 134

the ____ nervous system controls self-regulated action of internal organs and glands

Answer 134

autonomic

Question 135

the ____ nervous system controls AROUSING for non-digestive organ systems

Answer 135

sympathetic

Question 136

the ____ nervous system controls CALMING for non-digestive organ systems

Answer 136

parasympathetic

Question 137

the ___ is mostly concerned with housekeeping of the body, but can show strong effects of mental state, such as anticipation or threat reactivity

Answer 137

autonomic nervous system

Question 138

the ___ branch tends to prepare the body for intense action ; ‘fight or flight’

Answer 138

sympathetic branch

Question 139

the ____ branch tends to maintain homeostasis and repair ; ‘rest and digest’

Answer 139

parasympathetic branch

Question 140

our brains make up ____% of our body weight, but consume ____% of our metabolic resources

Answer 140

2% ; 20%

Question 141

functional imaging is dependent on ___ to track brain activity

Answer 141

blood flow

Question 142

____ were historically considered “support” cells for neurons

Answer 142

glial cells

Question 143

we think that there is approximately ___ glial cell for each neuron in the brain

Answer 143

one

Question 144

excitatory and inhibitory from other neurons

Answer 144

neuronal input

Question 145

neuronal summation occurs at the ____

Answer 145

axon hillock

Question 146

how does neuronal output travel

Answer 146

down the axon to synapse with next neuron

Question 147

the ____ neuron releases neurotransmitter (NT) into the synapse, which modulates activity of the ____ neuron, depending on the neurotransmitter and the receptor type

Answer 147

presynaptic ; postsynaptic

Question 148

basal forebrain constellation of cholinergic neurons, including basal nucleus of meynert ; dorsolateral pontine tegmental constellation of cholinergic neurons

Answer 148

acetylcholine

Question 149

is acetylcholine more widespread or more limited?

Answer 149

widespread

Question 150

is serotonin more widespread or more limited?

Answer 150

widespread

Question 151

is dopamine more widespread or more limited?

Answer 151

more limited

Question 152

the function of this neurotransmitter is to enable muscle action, learning, and memory

Answer 152

acetylcholine

Question 153

with alzheimer’s disease, ACh-producing neurons ____

Answer 153

deteriorate

Question 154

the function of this neurotransmitter is to influence movement, learning, attention, and emotion

Answer 154

dopamine

Question 155

excess dopamine receptor activity is linked to ___

Answer 155

schizophrenia

Question 156

starved of dopamine, the brain produces the tremors and decreased mobility of ____

Answer 156

parkinson’s disease

Question 157

the function of this neurotransmitter is to affect mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

Answer 157

serotonin

Question 158

undersupply of serotonin is linked to ___

Answer 158

depression

Question 159

____ and some other antidepressant drugs raise serotonin levels

Answer 159

prozac

Question 160

the function of this neurotransmitter is to help control alertness and arousal

Answer 160

norepinephrine

Question 161

undersupply of this neurotransmitter can depress mood

Answer 161

norepinephrine

Question 162

___ is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter

Answer 162

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

Question 163

undersupply of this neurotransmitter is linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia

Answer 163

GABA

Question 164

____ is a major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

Answer 164

glutamate

Question 165

oversupply of this neurotransmitter can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures (which is why some people avoid MSG in food)

Answer 165

glutamate

Question 166

“___” and “___” signals (from other neurons) flow through dendrites and cell body to the axon hillock where these signals are averaged together across the cell and over a short period of time (“___”)

Answer 166

“go” and “stop” ; (“summation”)

Question 167

if ‘go’ signals win, the action potential is the ___ response

Answer 167

all or none

Question 168

neurons fire at a ___ intensity

Answer 168

fixed

Question 169

continuous ‘go’ input can increase the firing rate to the limit of the refractory period, perhaps up to ____ times per second

Answer 169

1000

Question 170

(EEG) records the electrical activity of the ____ in real time

Answer 170

cortex

Question 171

___ brain activity is missing from EEG

Answer 171

non-cortical

Question 172

pyramidal neurons in the cortex are oriented in ____

Answer 172

columns

Question 173

as these neurons sum input from other neurons, their electrical charge becomes more _____ near the outside surface of the cortex

Answer 173

voltage-negative

Question 174

real time or “____” EEG is useful for tracking long-lasting ‘____’ mental states, like alertness or sleep

Answer 174

“raw” ; ‘tonic’

Question 175

repeated averaging enhances the small but consistent ‘hidden’ signal

Answer 175

event-related potential (ERP)

Question 176

true or false: brains will respond pretty much the same on trial one as they do on trial one-thousand

Answer 176

true

Question 177

true or false: different people’s brains respond differently

Answer 177

false ; they respond similarly

Question 178

averaging reveals the small, consistent EERP from the noisy EEG background, sort of like averaging the single pictures of a movie - the ____ elements remain

Answer 178

consistent

Question 179

things that do not change appear ____, while things that do change ____ together

Answer 179

bolder ; blend

Question 180

with ERP, ____ increases, and ____ decreases

Answer 180

signal ; noise

Question 181

what does ERP stand for?

Answer 181

event-related potential

Question 182

early ERP components (~100 ms after stimulus onset) are mostly driven by basic ____ features, like intensity

Answer 182

stimulus

Question 183

early ERP components are sometimes called ____ components, because they are determined outside the body

Answer 183

exogenous

Question 184

later ERP components (~250+ ms after stimulus onset) are mostly driven by _____ meaning of stimuli

Answer 184

psychological meaning

Question 185

later ERP components are sometimes called the _____ components, because they are determined inside the body

Answer 185

endogenous

Question 186

the first ERP component related to a psychological process was the ____

Answer 186

P300

Question 187

a big ERP shift ~300 ms after a ‘rare’ event

Answer 187

the P300

Question 188

the P300 was (and is) a hot area of study because it revealed brain reactivity to all sorts of ‘psychological events,’ including ____ events

Answer 188

missing

Question 189

the P3 is not a sensory response - the P3 can also reflect a ____

Answer 189

broken expectation

Question 190

____ is not recognized in the P3 (it often falls into the background) whereas ____ is noticed immediately

Answer 190

consistently ; change

Question 191

a major problem with ERP

Answer 191

source localization

Question 192

because the brain is ____, not all parts of the brain are perpendicular to the scalp

Answer 192

folded

Question 193

the ____ the activity is from the scalp, the ____ the signal (known as volume conduction)

Answer 193

farther ; weaker

Question 194

as the signal travels, it spreads out, and loses strength (relationship between depth and strength)

Answer 194

volume conduction

Question 195

true or false: strong EEG voltage could represent weak activity close to the scalp OR strong activity from deeper in the brain

Answer 195

true

Question 196

EEG/ERP source localization limitation: electrical activity ____ or _____ among folded sections of cortex

Answer 196

combines or cancels

Question 197

EEG/ERP source localization limitation: source ____ is difficult to distinguish from source depth

Answer 197

strength

Question 198

EEG/ERP source localization limitation: the exact ____ of sources is unknown

Answer 198

number

Question 199

EEG/ERP source localization limitation: each person’s head _____ is slightly different

Answer 199

anatomy

Question 200

what does MEG stand for?

Answer 200

magnetoencephalography

Question 201

MEG looks for the ____ field that accompanies the voltage field

Answer 201

magnetic

Question 202

MEG has the same ____ resolution as ERPs, but better ____ resolution than ERPs

Answer 202

temporal ; spatial

Question 203

what does SQUIDS stand for?

Answer 203

superconducting quantum interference devices

Question 204

do magnetic fields spread out like electric fields as they pass through the brain and skull?

Answer 204

no

Question 205

without the smearing effect of volume conduction, MEG is only limited by the ____ and ____ of SQUIDS

Answer 205

size and number

Question 206

MEG loses sensitivity sharply about ____ cm from the SQUID

Answer 206

5 cm

Question 207

MEG is effectively blind to ___ brain structures

Answer 207

deep

Question 208

MEG is really great for ____ cortical tissue, but has no sensitivity to deep cortical stuff

Answer 208

surface

Question 209

what does fMRI stand for?

Answer 209

functional magnetic resonance imaging

Question 210

fMRI yields colorful images that represent the ____ of brain activity with good precision, in a way that is easy to grasp

Answer 210

location

Question 211

3 elements of MRI:

Answer 211

1. strong, fixed magnet
2. radio emitter and receiver
3. weak, variable magnets

Question 212

magnetic hydrogen protons (in water) align with the field, and spin at a known rate (128 MHz for a 3T scanner)

Answer 212

strong, fixed magnet

Question 213

resonance radio wave energy at 128 MHz will “resonate with H protons and tilt them away from the main field

Answer 213

radio emitter and receiver

Question 214

imaging smaller fields are added to across the area to be scanned, which allow a 2D image to be constructed

Answer 214

weak, variable magnets

Question 215

this imaging method essentially detects the density of ____ in tissue, produces a stack of sharp images in about 15 minutes

Answer 215

structural MRI

Question 216

this imaging method involves repeated, lower-resolution imaging of the brain, showing interest in image intensity as it CHANGES OVER TIME)

Answer 216

functional MRI (fMRI)

Question 217

instead of focusing on water concentration, fMRI focuses on the small changes in signal intensity that accompany changes in local ____ oxygenation (BOLD contrast)

Answer 217

blood oxygenation

Question 218

what does BOLD contrast stand for?

Answer 218

blood oxygen level dependent

Question 219

high activity states trigger local increases in blood flow and volume (via astrocytes)
the “resupply” exceeds demand by about ____%

Answer 219

30%

Question 220

this 30% excess of oxygenated blood ____ MRI signal intensity, because oxygenated blood contains slightly ____ iron than deoxygenated blood

Answer 220

increases ; less

Question 221

how does iron affect magnetic fields?

Answer 221

it perturbs magnetic fields and causes signal intensity to sharply drop

Question 222

because BOLD tracks the blood flow change, and not the neural activity that triggered it, BOLD signal onset is ____ and lasts for several seconds after scene offset

Answer 222

delayed

Question 223

fMRI’s biggest weakness:

Answer 223

the typical fMRI sampling rate is far slower than the speed of the brain

Question 224

true or false: consciousness is defined as correlated activity across at least 75% of the brain

Answer 224

false; there is little agreement about what consciousness is

Question 225

true or false: consciousness is defined as the electrochemical activity of the brain oscillating above ~15 Hz

Answer 225

false; there is little agreement about what consciousness is

Question 226

human skull volume has ____ over the last 2 million years

Answer 226

tripled

Question 227

human skull volume has ____ over the last 5,000 years
a. remained stable
b. increased slightly
c. doubled
d. tripled

Answer 227

a. remained stable

Question 228

human cortex shows unique structural features, such as:
a. homogeneous tissue organized in columns and layers
b. dense convolutions, including gyri and sulci
c. left-right symmetry in structure
d. all of the above

Answer 228

d. all of the above

Question 229

true or false: the fissures of the cortex are unique to all individuals

Answer 229

false

Question 230

true or false: subcortical structures operate independently from the cortex

Answer 230

false

Question 231

true or false: the cerebral cortex contains primarily neurons, while subcortical structures are primarily glial cells

Answer 231

false

Question 232

true or false: the autonomic nervous system is part of the central nervous system

Answer 232

false ; part of the peripheral nervous system

Question 233

true or false: psychological states can strongly influence the autonomic nervous system

Answer 233

true

Question 234

what autonomic branch would be expected to be more active after eating a large meal?

Answer 234

parasympathetic

Question 235

the thalamus may be critical to consciousness because of its:
a. broad structural connectivity with cortex and brainstem
b. high proportion of cortical - cortical connections
c. capability to switch between “burst” and “tonic” modes of transmission
d. all of the above

Answer 235

d. all of the above

Question 236

a neuron is more likely to fire when:
a. excitatory input arrives on the cell body, vs. a dendrite
b. multiple excitatory inputs arrive simultaneously, vs. over time
c. excitatory input at the hillock follows multiple inhibitory inputs on the dendrites
d. all of the above

Answer 236

d. all of the above

Question 237

neurons fire at a ___ intensity

Answer 237

fixed

Question 238

a neuron is more likely to fire when:
a. excitatory input arrives on the cell body, vs. a dendrite
b. multiple excitatory inputs arrive simultaneously, vs. over time
c. inhibitory input at the hillock follows multiple inhibitory inputs on the dendrites
d. all of the above

Answer 238

b. multiple excitatory inputs arrive simultaneously, vs. over time

Question 239

perception = ___ + ___

Answer 239

sensation + prediction based on experience

Question 240

our visual systems quickly and efficiently represent the world with limited ___ by making use of lots of past ___

Answer 240

limited information ; past experience

Question 241

what we perceive is a ___ of what comes into our senses, guided (or biased) by what we have seen most often in our lifetime

Answer 241

construction

Question 242

we have so much experience viewing ___ that our visual systems can sometimes lead us to perceive anything with many face-like features as being a face, at least momentarily

Answer 242

faces

Question 243

the visual system develops over ___ to become efficient at classifying things commonly around you

Answer 243

childhood

Question 244

photoreceptors that are sensitive to brightness

Answer 244

rods

Question 245

photoreceptors that are sensitive to color

Answer 245

cones

Question 246

the ___ is concentrated with cones

Answer 246

fovea

Question 247

central fixation of the fovea

Answer 247

0 degrees

Question 248

rods dominate ___

Answer 248

peripheral vision

Question 249

pathway to cortex:

Answer 249

1. retinal input
2. ‘crosses over’ at the chiasm
3. left or right visual field is processed in the opposite lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus and occipital cortex

Question 250

a “first order” thalamic nucleus

Answer 250

lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)

Question 251

the right visual field is processed solely in the ___ primary visual cortex (V1), and vice versa

Answer 251

right visual field - left primary visual cortex

left visual field - right primary visual cortex

Question 252

the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) is a component of which part of the brain?

Answer 252

thalamus

Question 253

the LGN of the thalamus transfers retinal input to ___ in successive stages

Answer 253

V1

Question 254

when transferring retinal input from the LGN to V1, first, a coarse “gist” of the scene is sent, followed by the fine details over the next ~___ms

Answer 254

~10 ms

Question 255

slow, detailed (“specific”)

Answer 255

parvo

Question 256

fast, coarse (“global”)

Answer 256

magno

Question 257

the primary visual cortex (V1) is located along the ___ fissure

Answer 257

calcarine fissure

Question 258

the primary visual cortex (V1) receives retinal input according to the ___ of the stimulus in the visual field

Answer 258

location

Question 259

the ___ half of your visual field is routed to right V1

Answer 259

left

Question 260

the ___ field areas are routed to the inferior back of V1

Answer 260

upper field areas

Question 261

the ___ fixation point is routed to posterior V1

Answer 261

central fixation point

Question 262

___ areas route to anterior V1

Answer 262

peripheral areas

Question 263

for every degree of the visual field, separate clusters of V1 neurons are sensitive to different ___ (edges, contrast, brightness) of objects in that location

Answer 263

visual features

Question 264

despite considerable differences in our left and right eye’s visual field, we see ___ image

Answer 264

one unified image

Question 265

the mystery of binocular vision: each of our eyes sees a different view, yet the image we see is uniform

how is this “convergence” accomplished?

Answer 265

we haven’t figured it out exactly

Question 266

why do we have two eyes? there is a consistent difference across prey/predator species in ___ vs. ___ processing

Answer 266

peripheral vs. depth processing

Question 267

___ overlap in visual field (both eyes facing ___) gives a much better account of our distance to the object

Answer 267

wide overlap ; both eyes facing forward

Question 268

prey eyes vs. predator eyes

Answer 268

prey eyes - stronger peripheral vision

Question 269

lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) directs left and right visual input to V1, but keeps track of which eye the retinal input came from in layer ___

Answer 269

layer 4

Question 270

if we present conflicting information into each eye, our perception switches back and forth between the two

Answer 270

binocular rivalry

Question 271

according to binocular rivalry, there must be some ___ and ___ between left and right eye input, reflecting ‘higher order’ (late visual cortex and prefrontal cortex) processes that bias our perception toward one stimulus

Answer 271

competition and choice

Question 272

binocular rivalry task: when presented a happy face, a neutral face, or an unhappy face, people have a slightly greater likelihood of reporting an __ face than a ___ face

Answer 272

emotional face ; neutral face

Question 273

the visual system converts the light at the retina into the basic properties of visual perception including: (5 components)

Answer 273

1. lightness
2. color
3. depth
4. size
5. motion

Question 274

___ qualities can be different from the physical properties of visual stimuli as measured by purely objective methods (ex. was the dress white and gold or blue and black?)

Answer 274

perceived

Question 275

lightness is a ___ quality, while luminance is a ___ property of an object

Answer 275

perceived quality ; physical property

Question 276

the ___ of an object is not directly related to the ___ of an object

Answer 276

lightness ; luminance

Question 277

lightness could be described as a ___ value, dependent upon local ___ and prior ___

Answer 277

calculated value ; local context ; prior experience

Question 278

our visual systems have not evolved to determine the “___” nature of stimuli, only what we need to manage

Answer 278

“true”

Question 279

through infancy and early childhood (by ___ and ___) we learn what visual features are “correct” and use this information to interpret future scenes

Answer 279

trial and error

Question 280

around what age do we learn what visual features are correct?

Answer 280

around age 3 or 4

Question 281

a global distinction can be made between “___” and “___” visual pathways, although recent data suggests the streams are more mixed

Answer 281

“what” and “where” pathways

Question 282

two pathways within the primary and extrastriate visual cortex:

Answer 282

where pathway and what pathway

Question 283

where pathway - ___ stream

Answer 283

dorsal stream

Question 284

analysis of motion and spatial relations within this pathway

Answer 284

where pathway

Question 285

what pathway - ___ stream

Answer 285

ventral stream

Question 286

analysis of form and color within this pathway

Answer 286

what pathway

Question 287

ventral visual cortex: early vs. late stage:

a rough distinction can be made between early visual (“___”) and later visual (“____”) processing regions

Answer 287

(“simple”) and (“complex categorical”)

Question 288

which part of the brain is utilized during late stage?

Answer 288

inferior temporal (IT) visual cortex)

Question 289

which part of the brain is utilized during early/mid stage?

Answer 289

occipital visual cortex (V1, V2, V3…)

Question 290

visual cortex - general locations:

this part of the brain is medial inferior temporal

Answer 290

parahippocampal gyrus

Question 291

visual cortex - general locations:

this part of the brain is lateral inferior temporal

Answer 291

fusiform gyrus

Question 292

visual cortex - general locations:

this part of the brain is referred to as the “transition area”

Answer 292

lateral occipital

Question 293

visual cortex - general locations:

this area of the brain is middle temporal

Answer 293

area MT

Question 294

early/mid stage of visual processing occurs within:

Answer 294

V1, V2, V3, V3a

Question 295

‘early stage’ :
‘late stage’ :

Answer 295

‘early stage’ : V1, V2, V3
‘late stage’ : everything else

Question 296

PPA refers to:

Answer 296

parahippocampal “place area”

Question 297

FFA refers to:

Answer 297

fusiform “face area”

Question 298

lots of fMRI and invasive data reveals that there are multiple ventral visual regions dedicated to the processing of ___ of things like faces, body parts, words, and others

Answer 298

categories

Question 299

where is color perceived?

lesion data suggests that color perception depends on regions of ___ visual cortex, a late stage of visual processing

Answer 299

ventral visual cortex

Question 300

patients with damage in the ventral visual cortex (stroke, tumor) often report a ___ loss of color vision, while other visual abilities remain intact

Answer 300

specific

Question 301

___ cues can even evoke activation in deeper regions of V1 that represent the peripheral visual field (larger objects)

Answer 301

depth cues

Question 302

V1 activity at central fixation, representing a small object activates:

Answer 302

only V1 and V2

Question 303

V1 activity at central fixation and periphery, representing a large object activates:

Answer 303

V1-5

Question 304

the illusory effect in V1 depends on feedback from ___ brain regions

because fMRI reflects average activity over seconds of time, we can see this ___ effect in V1

Answer 304

later brain regions ; context effect

Question 305

in the ___ (a type of monkey), the organization and timing of visual processing stages is relatively well known

Answer 305

macaque

Question 306

visual information is integrated and resolved along the ventral pathway until task-driven decisions can be made in PFC around ~___ ms

Answer 306

~150 ms

Question 307

the first stage of visual processing in V1 is purely ___ driven (“___”)

Answer 307

stimulus driven ; (“bottom up”)

Question 308

the first stage of visual processing in V1 occurs up to around ~___ ms after cue onset

Answer 308

~50 ms

Question 309

later V1 activity also reflects ___ from other brain regions (“___”), such as late visual cortex and prefrontal cortex

Answer 309

feedback ; (“top-down”)

Question 310

later V1 activity occurs ~___ ms after onset

Answer 310

~100 ms

Question 311

feedback biases perception:

~50 ms =

Answer 311

~50 ms = pure sensory

Question 312

feedback biases perception:

~120 ms =

Answer 312

~120 ms = biased

Question 313

perceptual priming:

one model of this process focuses on visual context, which has been shown to churn information in a repeating cycle of ___ and ___ waves

Answer 313

feedforward and feedback waves

Question 314

…we argue that the ventral pathway is a ___ and highly ___ occipitotemporal network linking early visual areas and the anterior IT cortex (aIT) along multiple routes through which visual information is processed

Answer 314

recurrent and highly interactive

Question 315

the ventral visual pathway is ___, ___

Answer 315

reentrant, nonlinear

Question 316

“…anatomical evidence indicates that the ventral pathway is actually a complex network of feedforward and feedback projections, some of which are unidirectional (ex. non-reciprocal) feedback connections and others of which ___ intermediate areas, allowing direct communication between putative early and late stages of the hierarchy”

Answer 316

bypass

Question 317

“visual information from ‘early’ stages of the central route can be transmitted to the most rostral temporal areas or ‘final’ visual processing stages without passing through the ___ areas of the central route”

Answer 317

intermediate

Question 318

a reentrant, nonlinear explanation of the ventral visual pathway might explain how late-stage visual cortex could rapidly ___ early visual cortex

Answer 318

bias

Question 319

visual cues for ___ and object ___ are so convincing because feedback from late-stage visual cortex seems to activate regions of V1 that represent larger objects (the peripheral visual field)

Answer 319

depth and object size

Question 320

because fMRI reflects average activity over seconds of time, we can see this biasing effect in V1, ___ after the feedback has arrived

Answer 320

long after

Question 321

the feedback to V1 is limited to basic features that V1 processes, like ___ and ___

Answer 321

luminance and size

Question 322

explicit, clear awareness of a face is most strongly tied to ___ activity

Answer 322

FFA (fusiform face area)

Question 323

is the FFA only specific to faces?

Answer 323

no ; the FFA shows plenty of activity for non-face stimuli too

Question 324

in some studies, the FG is the ___ selective visual area

Answer 324

least

Question 325

according to gauthier’s ‘greeble’ study, FFA = ___, and is not a genetic module for faces

Answer 325

FFA = experience

Question 326

auditory information, including speech and music, can be quite powerful

true or false: science has come up with a reasonable evolutionary purpose for music

Answer 326

false; despite lots of trying, science hasn’t come up with a reasonable evolutionary purpose for music

Question 327

the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens are referred to as the ___

Answer 327

reward circuit

Question 328

the reward circuit runs on ___

Answer 328

dopamine

Question 329

olds and milner (1954) demonstrated (accidentally) that a rat given the ability to self-stimulate the nucleus accumbens (NAcc) would continue to do so until ___ from thirst

Answer 329

death

Question 330

what does NAcc stand for?

Answer 330

nucleus accumbens

Question 331

in human fMRI studies, ___ rewards (ex. chocolate, cocaine) and ___ rewards (money) will drive reward circuit activity, including subcortical nucleus accumbens (NAcc) and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (mPFC)

Answer 331

primary rewards and secondary rewards

Question 332

___ is a powerful driver of NAcc activity

Answer 332

methamphetamine (as well as all drugs of abuse and gambling)

Question 333

___ music activates nucleus accumbens (vs. neutral)

Answer 333

pleasant (your favorite)

Question 334

___ binding = more dopamine release

Answer 334

less binding

Question 335

are pure tones rare or common in the real world?

Answer 335

rare (most natural sounds are combinations of many different frequencies)

Question 336

a recent meta-analysis of 47 fMRI studies of music (n=997) found that pleasant music enhances activity in reward (NAcc) and basic emotion regions (amygdala), along with increases in auditory cortex

is it clear how music became linked to this basic reward system?

Answer 336

no; how music became linked to this basic reward system is unclear

Question 337

instruments produce sounds that contain multiple ___ (or timbre) which we use to help us discriminate between different sound sources, like a piano vs. a flute

Answer 337

harmonics

Question 338

the upper harmonics are a doubling of the ___ (___) frequency

Answer 338

fundamental (lowest) frequency

Question 339

with each harmonic, the energy is ___, until it dies out around the ___th or so

Answer 339

reduced ; 10th

Question 340

fundamental frequency is always the same: ___ Hz

Answer 340

440 Hz

Question 341

does the strength of upper harmonics remain the same or vary?

Answer 341

varies widely

Question 342

our auditory systems keep track of all of these simultaneous frequencies by converting sound pressure variation to neuronal input via the ___

Answer 342

cochlea

Question 343

this device contains ~48 artificial excitation points in cochlea can be enough for people to decipher speech and other complex sounds

Answer 343

cochlear implant

Question 344

the auditory system enables selective filtering of input at the level of the ___, allowing us to focus on frequencies of interest in the moment

Answer 344

cochlea

Question 345

from the cochlea, frequencies are sent to the ___

Answer 345

primary auditory cortex (A1)

Question 346

sounds are ordered by ___ within A1 (like a piano)

Answer 346

frequency

Question 347

our auditory system is hyper-sensitive in the ___-___ range

Answer 347

2-5k range

Question 348

specialization of the auditory system may have evolved recently, adding sensitivity about ~___KHz

Answer 348

~3.5 KHz

Question 349

the auditory system includes two subcortical circuits to ___ low (<3 Hz) and high (>3 Hz) frequency sounds

Answer 349

localize

Question 350

is our ability to localize sound good?

Answer 350

no

Question 351

are humans more dependent on visual or auditory input?

Answer 351

visual

Question 352

how does the somatosensory system work? is it clear or unclear?

Answer 352

unclear ; we know the parts involved, but not how they really work together in real time

Question 353

located along the back edge of the frontal lobe (M1) and the front edge of the parietal lobe (S1), separated by the central sulcus

Answer 353

location of the primary somatosensory and primary motor cortex

Question 354

The ___ of SS cortex involved depends on the need for fine control and sensitivity

Answer 354

volume

Question 355

do your eyelids occupy about the same volume of the SS cortex as do your legs? more or less?

Answer 355

about the same

Question 356

the primary sensory cortex (S1) includes three subtypes of physical sensation from the body:

Answer 356

1. touch
2. temperature/pain
3. joint/muscle position sense

Question 357

different types of sensory information are channeled through three parallel pathways in the ___ and ___, ultimately feeding into the same section of S1 representing that body part

Answer 357

spinal cord and brainstem

Question 358

the first modality of the touch subtype of the primary sensory cortex (S1)

Answer 358

discriminative touch (DT)

Question 359

discriminative touch includes 3 categories:

Answer 359

touch, pressure, and vibration perception

Question 360

free nerve endings =

Answer 360

pain

Question 361

meissner corpuscles =

Answer 361

slow vibration

Question 362

ruffini endings =

Answer 362

compression

Question 363

pacinian corpuscles =

Answer 363

rapid vibration

Question 364

temperature/pain includes the sensation of ___ and ___ across the body

Answer 364

itch and tickle

Question 365

___ nerve stimulation from pepper, ammonia, tear gas also falls under this group

Answer 365

trigeminal

Question 366

___ stimulation in mouth, nose, and eyes = pain

Answer 366

noxious

Question 367

when you put hot sauce in your food, you are not adding taste or improving the flavor, you are adding ___, as you are stimulating the trigeminal nerve

Answer 367

pain

Question 368

___ and ___ are critical for tickle

Answer 368

intensity and duration

Question 369

joint muscle position sense is described by

Answer 369

proprioception

Question 370

joint muscle position sense (proprioception) includes receptors for muscle ___, joint ___, and tendon ___

Answer 370

muscle stretch, joint position, and tendon tension

Question 371

this modality (joint muscle position sense - proprioception) feeds into the ___, which processes real-time feedback regarding the orientation of the body

Answer 371

cerebellum

Question 372

___ is susceptible to alcohol

Answer 372

proprioception

Question 373

somatosensory representation in the cortex is ___ (it expands and contracts with experience)

Answer 373

dynamic

Question 374

throughout childhood, our common actions became ‘packaged’ into functional units in ___

Answer 374

M1 (primary motor cortex)

Question 375

in an animal model, complex multi-joint movements can be evoked by stimulation at a ___ location on primary motor cortex

Answer 375

single location

Question 376

M1 codes ___, not single muscles

Answer 376

actions

Question 377

many of our common motor behaviors are “___”
-we combine motor scheme so we can walk, look at our phone, and eat at the same time

Answer 377

automated

Question 378

example of a motor expectation

Answer 378

walking into the kitchen to put the milk and cereal box away (you know the general direction to walk into the kitchen, but you put the cereal in the fridge, and the milk in the pantry)

Question 379

locomotor behaviors are even more ___
-once begun, major transitions in locomotion pattern can be managed outside of our awareness

Answer 379

packaged

Question 380

does awareness make major transitions in locomotion pattern better or worse?

Answer 380

worse

Question 381

animal research shows that the ___ alone can manage transitions in locomotor behaviors via what has been called ___ (CPG) without any input from the brain

Answer 381

spinal cord ; central pattern generators

Question 382

does controlled motor behavior require little or enormous preparation and on/off timing before M1 becomes involved to execute the action?

Answer 382

enormous

Question 383

this part of the brain manages the preparation for action in response to external cuees

Answer 383

premotor cortex

Question 384

premotor cortex activity ___ primary motor cortex activity

Answer 384

precede

Question 385

premotor cortex activity ___ when overt movement begins (or is aborted)

Answer 385

ceases

Question 386

in superior medial frontal cortex, and feeds into premotor cortex

Answer 386

supplementary motor cortex

Question 387

does the supplementary motor cortex manage well-learned movements, with or without need for explicit sensory cues?

Answer 387

without

Question 388

does an action actually have to happen to evoke supplementary motor area (SMA) activity?

Answer 388

no; simply imagining that you are riding a bike will evoke SMA activity (the action does not have to actually happen)

Question 389

SMA (and cerebellum) is strongly active during ___ actions, even when action is clearly impossible
-___ feedback is unnecessary

Answer 389

imagined ; sensory feedback

Question 390

motor preparation occupies a large chunk of cortex, mostly located on surface ___

Answer 390

gyri

Question 391

___ exploit this large premotor signal to communicate with “locked in” patients

Answer 391

brain-computer interfaces

Question 392

to finely control the exact onset and offset of a movement, the ___ serves as a “gate” between premotor and motor cortex

Answer 392

basal ganglia

Question 393

this part of the brain prepares and plans motor behavior

Answer 393

premotor cortex

Question 394

the start and stop of motor behavior (“gating”)

Answer 394

basal ganglia

Question 395

the execution of the motor behavior occurs in which part of the brain?

Answer 395

primary motor cortex

Question 396

which part of the brain ensures that the action goes “according to plan”

Answer 396

cerebellum

Question 397

cerebellum: movement “___” in real time

Answer 397

“tuning”

Question 398

the cerebellum serves to ___ and ___ the balance of sensory-motor integration during a movement

Answer 398

coordinate and refine

Question 399

cerebellum makes up ___% of total brain volume, but makes up almost ___% of neurons in the brain

Answer 399

10% ; 50%

Question 400

this part of the brain is thought to be a huge ‘data processor’ crunching numbers to adjust motor output based on sensory feedback, thus enabling precise motor control in changing contexts

Answer 400

cerebellum

Question 401

true or false: human brains have an oversized cortex

Answer 401

true; other mammals have nearly equivalent sized cortex and cerebellum

Question 402

a quick neurological test of cerebellar integrity

Answer 402

moving your finger directly between your nose and a fixed point in space

Question 403

the ___ pathways of the cerebellum are well defined, but real-time function is not

Answer 403

structural

Question 404

the cerebellum receives huge amounts of input from the cortex (frontal, parietal), spinal cord, and midbrain, and then some sort of comparison is made between ___ and ___ action

Answer 404

planned and actual

Question 405

after a comparison is made between planned and actual action, ___ signals are sent from the cerebellum to motor thalamus to refine movement in almost real time

Answer 405

error correction signals

Question 405

error correction signals are sent from the ___ to motor ___

Answer 405

cerebellum to motor thalamus

Question 406

the cerebellum is also active during many ___ tasks, which was often ignored as “noise” in early fMRI studies

Answer 406

non-motor

Question 407

true or false: inhibiting the cerebellum (but not other areas of the brain) slows down our ability to make predictable choices

Answer 407

true

Question 407

which 3 behavior domains appear to be associated with the largest clusters of cerebellum activity?

Answer 407

language, music, and working memory

Question 408

one idea about the cerebellum’s contribution to no motor tasks is that its huge processing power may have been “repurposed” to ___ what might happen in future behaviors

Answer 408

predict

Question 408

dynamic behaviors (language, music, working memory) involve the most significant ___ and ___ as the behavior takes place

Answer 408

prediction and adjustment

Question 409

the nature of body ownership is ___

Answer 409

constructive

Question 410

which study illustrated the flexible nature of body ownership?

Answer 410

the rubber hand illusion
-when a semi-realistic false hand was placed within the subject’s view (with their real hand out of view) and both hands were stimulated, most subjects soon reported feeling ownership of the false hand, reacting defensively if the false hand was threatened

Question 410

notice taken of someone or something; the regarding of someone or something as interesting or important

Answer 410

attention

Question 411

is attention a limited or unlimited resource?

Answer 411

limited

Question 412

___ models of attention highlight our limited capacity to process information

Answer 412

cognitive models

Question 412

true or false: attention increases our processing of some things and decreases our processing of other things

Answer 412

true

Question 412

attention is:

Answer 412

focusing on a subset of features that are somehow “relevant” and ignoring the “irrelevant”

Question 413

what kind of stimuli do we process a bit more readily during this “blink” of attention?

Answer 413

emotional stimuli

Question 413

this form of attention is called endogenous, or “top-down” attention
-the “top” is the goal state coming from inside (endo) the person
-we are searching for a specific target

Answer 413

goal-directed attention

Question 413

how does the filtering process for attention work? where and how do we process some things more fully than others, and how do we choose which things are “relevant” ?

Answer 413

it’s not completely clear

Question 414

example of goal-directed attention

Answer 414

where’s waldo?
-we search the area slowly and carefully until we find the target

Question 415

true or false: too much or too little attention can be dangerous

Answer 415

true

Question 415

even when we are trying our best, our attention is ___

Answer 415

imperfect

Question 416

this task asks folks to attend to 2 letters presented in a rapid series. processing the first letter (T1) absorbs most of folks’ attention, revealing a “blink,” or lapse of attention for the second letter (T2), strongest around 200 ms after T1

Answer 416

“attentional blink” task

Question 417

searching for one particular thing through a mixture of multiple target features

Answer 417

conjunction search

Question 417

true or false: multiple target features (conjunction search) does NOT increase search time along with the number of background distractors

Answer 417

false ; does increase search time

Question 418

the ___ of a target extends reaction time significantly

Answer 418

absence

Question 418

does reaction time extend or shorten as the number of distractors increases?

Answer 418

extends

Question 419

this form of attention is called exogenous, or “bottom-up” attention
-the “bottom” is the sensory features that ‘pop-out’ or grab our attention from outside the body (exo)

Answer 419

automatic capture of attention (“captured” attention)

Question 419

example of “captured” attention

Answer 419

a loud noise or a flash of lightning
-these features interrupt and grab our attention, without any intention on our part
-we can’t ignore it, these stimuli are processed even if we don’t want to

Question 419

do endogenous and exogenous attention features function together or separately in search tasks?

Answer 419

together

Question 419

if search features “pop-out” strongly, task performance is ___
-in this scenario, does the number of distractors matter?

Answer 419

fast ; does not matter

Question 420

can attention be defined simply by gaze location?

Answer 420

no

Question 421

does attention operate independent or “above” simple visual input?

Answer 421

yes

Question 421

true or false: attending covertly leads to increased response speed and improved accuracy to a stimulus appearing at the attended location

Answer 421

true

Question 422

asking subjects to pay attention to a location on a screen, while keeping fixation somewhere else

Answer 422

attending covertly

Question 423

early visual ___ show evidence of a ‘covert’ attention advantage
-visual areas seem to be “warmed up” ahead of time by ___ attention

Answer 423

early visual ERPs ; endogenous attention

Question 423

covert attention enhances visual cortical fMRI BOLD signal before or after the target appears?

Answer 423

before

Question 423

first: locate ___ areas that respond to upper left and right patches

-subtracting BOLD signal recorded as subjects wait for left vs. right cue to appear shows a huge ___ increase in cortical activation due to attention

Answer 423

V1 ; preparatory increase

Question 424

true or false: attending to the left ‘warms up’ left visual hemisphere areas

Answer 424

false ; attending to the left ‘warms up’ right visual hemisphere areas

Question 425

___ elements in the unattended ear can “force through” the filter and “capture” our attention

Answer 425

salient

Question 425

selective attention effect is mostly consistent with an old hypothesis of Helmholtz (1860s), suggesting that attention operates by filtering (“gating out”) unattended input at the early sensory stage

-this filter of attention is not perfect - ___ (or personally ‘salient’) stimuli break through the filter

Answer 425

exogenous

Question 426

this also works for auditory input, by asking folks to wear headphones playing two different recordings, and asking them to alternate their attention toward one ear or the other

-in this “dichotomous listening” task, memory is much better for the content played to the ___ ear

Answer 426

attended ear

Question 427

neuroscience studies of attention show that selection can modulate brain reactivity at all stages of the process. what are the two kinds of selection?

Answer 427

early selection and late selection

Question 427

example: if an ‘ignored’ speaker sneezes, laughs, curses, or says your full name, this ability to register ‘relevant’ details in the ignored ear argues against a strict early selection model of attention

-why does this sort of feature make evolutionary sense?

Answer 427

we should never be able to completely ignore explicit threats

Question 427

recent data demonstrates that the porous filter works in one or both directions? inhibiting processing of ignored cues, and enhancing processing of attended cues

Answer 427

both directions

Question 428

a revised model, which allows highly relevant information to pass through the ears

Answer 428

porous filter

Question 429

where does late selection occur?

Answer 429

prefrontal cortex

Question 429

where does early selection occur?

Answer 429

sensory cortex

Question 430

searching through a messy desk drawer for a highlighter is an example of which selection?

Answer 430

early selection

Question 431

searching through a crowded bar for your roommate is an example of which selection?

Answer 431

late selection

Question 432

if you are searching through a crowded bar for your roommate, and you happen to know that your roommate is wearing red, this is an example of which kind of selection?

Answer 432

early and late selection

Question 433

how is selection managed in the brain?

Answer 433

folks are still working on it

Question 434

this theory by treisman suggests that we have “feature maps” in our visual systems that allow us to quickly and efficiently recognize basic characteristics (color, shape, etc.) that enables exogenous “pop-out” attention

Answer 434

feature integration theory

Question 435

if we need to locate something we ‘bind’ these multiple features together, using ___ attention.

-do we know much about the brain mechanisms supporting this process? or is this where research is in progress

Answer 435

endogenous ; where research is in progress

Question 436

almost any sort of visual attention task evokes activity in two bilateral brain regions:

Answer 436

1. the premotor frontal eye fields (FEF)
2. dorsal parietal intraparietal sulcus (IPS)

Question 437

this region of the brain is tied to eye movement and preparation

Answer 437

frontal eye fields (FEF)

Question 438

this region of the brain is involved in 3D spatial awareness of stimuli around you

Answer 438

intraparietal sulcus (IPS)

Question 439

the ___ network appears to swerve the needs of endogenous attention - anything that we need or want to look at engages the network

Answer 439

frontoparietal network

Question 440

true or false: frontoparietal network (FP) network activity is limited to eye movements only

Answer 440

false ; FP network activity is independent of eye movement

Question 441

does covert attention shifts also drive FEF/IPS activity?

Answer 441

yes

Question 441

studies of exogenous shifts of attention find activity in a parallel attention network now called the ___

Answer 441

ventral FP (frontoparietal) network

Question 441

the ventral FP network consists of two components:

Answer 441

1. inferior frontal gyrus (IFG)
2. temporoparietal junction (TPJ)

Question 441

the dorsal network consists of two components:

Answer 441

FEF (frontal eye fields) and IPS (intraparietal sulcus)

Question 442

___ shifts of attention are associated with activity in dorsal network (FEF and IPS)

Answer 442

endogenous

Question 443

this type of attention is characterized by endogenous shifts of attention are associated with activity in dorsal network (FEF and IPS)

Answer 443

voluntary attention

Question 444

ventral network is composed of two components in the brain:

Answer 444

temporoparietal junction (TPJ) and inferior frontal gyrus (IFG)

Question 445

imagine sitting and watching TV; the ___ FP network manages your visual attention to the screen and limits sensitivity to anything else

Answer 445

dorsal

Question 445

a timer goes off in the kitchen, the ___ FP network breaks your attention toward the TV. Then, the ___ FP engages as you make your way to get your dinner

Answer 445

ventral ; dorsal

Question 445

this FP network can be thought of as a “circuit breaker” or “interrupt mechanism” to cease focused attention

Answer 445

ventral FP network

Question 446

which FP network is mostly in charge?

Answer 446

dorsal

Question 446

___ shifts of attention are associated with activity in ventral network (TPJ and IFG)

Answer 446

exogenous

Question 447

in studies where attention is ‘captured’ by features like salience, or emotion, attention effects take longer, around ___ ms after the target

Answer 447

200 ms

Question 447

The basic idea of selective attention is that some region of PFC (and probably other areas) ___ and ___ the search goal. The current goal appears to inform the FP network to scan the environment, locate the target, and fixate gaze to that point

Answer 447

chooses and maintains

Question 447

___ designs in visual search are simplistic

-when searching for a target with one basic feature (ex. a red bar), we are able to rapidly search a large array, using exogenous attention

Answer 447

“classic”

Question 447

most attention studies use ___ tasks, where the subject is “prepared and waiting” for a specific target

Answer 447

endogenous tasks

Question 447

with endogenous tasks, attention effects are evident soon after the target appears, around ___ ms

Answer 447

100 ms

Question 448

is a naturalistic search performance faster or slower than expected

Answer 448

faster than expected

Question 448

by studying attention ___ stimuli, we reveal how attention works (and evolved) to solve ‘real world’ problems

Answer 448

naturalistic stimuli

Question 448

find a notre dame fan in the crowd of a UGA football game: complex but familiar, and ecologically valid

Answer 448

example of a naturalistic (real world) search

Question 448

when asked to decide if a scene contains an animal, people can correctly identify animals ___% of the time, even when the scene is presented for only ___ ms

Answer 448

94% ; 20 ms

Question 448

find a horizontal red line in a picture of red and green lines, tilted at different angles: Simple, but also unfamiliar, and ecologically sterile, foreign

Answer 448

example of a naturalistic (real world) search

Question 449

familiar contexts ___ search times

• we locate objects (ex. a coffee maker) ___ when they are placed in a natural setting, relative to a simple array, even though the natural setting is much more visually complex

Answer 449

reduce ; faster

Question 449

naturalistic search: why so fast?

this early ERP effect is just as fast as hillyard’s left vs. right visual attention, or left vs. right ear attention. but the task is much more ___ (cars vs. trees, or faces vs. buildings)

Answer 449

complex

Question 449

why is a naturalistic search so fast?

Answer 449

target objects and distractors are familiar ; it is easy for us to search for an animal in a natural environment (we’ve been training for this sort of task our whole lives)

Question 450

true or false: scene context hinders gaze location

Answer 450

false ; scene context aids gaze location
-fixations demonstrate that people know where to look for an object in a photograph from past experience

Question 450

does attention modulate only early or early and late visual cortex activity up and down?

Answer 450

both early and late

Question 451

if we change the target category every trial, we can see the ___ ventral visual cortex ‘warm up’ and “cool down” the category-sensitive regions ahead of time (just like early visual cortex)

Answer 451

late ventral visual cortex

Question 452

naturalistic search: limitations

-attention can bias visual processing of broad target categories (ex. cars vs. trees) but cannot focus on ___ subtypes (ex. BMWs vs. Fords, cats vs. dogs)

Answer 452

detailed

Question 452

how does attention modulate brain reactivity?

Answer 452

models of selective attention propose that target stimuli are “tagged” or “gated through” in some way for enhanced processing, but the exact mechanism is unknown

Question 452

the enhancement of familiar target categories is enacted in parallel across part of or the entire visual field, much like basic features such as color?
-we can’t limit our categorical attention to one location around us

Answer 452

the entire visual field

Question 452

this type of attention is characterized by exogenous shifts of attention are associated with activity in a ventral network including temporoparietal junction (TPD) and inferior frontal gyrus (IFG)

Answer 452

attention reorienting

Question 453

do the dorsal and ventral networks work in unison or opposition?

Answer 453

opposition

Question 453

true or false: when one FP network is active, the other is inhibited

Answer 453

true

Question 454

recently, a research group were able to identify multiple V1 clusters that responded to different line orientations, but all fed into a single ___ cluster

Answer 454

V4

Question 454

both ___ and ___ of EEG appear to support network connections

Answer 454

frequency and phase

Question 454

cortical neurons are constantly ___ (increasing and decreasing. inactivity)

Answer 454

oscillating

Question 454

comparing the way cortical signals between V1 and V4 neurons changed when the same stimulus was attended or ignored focuses on 2 components:

Answer 454

frequency and phase of EEG signals between V1 and V4

Question 455

activity is greatest at the ___ point of an oscillation. it sends and receives signals best at this point in time

Answer 455

high point

Question 455

if two or more regions are connected, and oscillating at the same frequency, they are often part of a ___ network

Answer 455

functional network

Question 456

for A and B to communicate best, A should send a signal to B so that it ___ when B is at a high point of activity

Answer 456

arrives

Question 456

this process manages region A so that its signal is sent to A’s high point, and so it arrives when region B is at its high point

Answer 456

phase shift

Question 456

higher oscillation frequencies represent ___ signals, while slower frequencies represent ___ signals

Answer 456

feedforward ; feedback

Question 456

high frequency EEG = ___ signals

Answer 456

feedforward

Question 456

bottom-up =

Answer 456

gamma

Question 457

rhythms for cognition:

Answer 457

communication through coherence

Question 457

V1 clusters feed into target cluster in ___

Answer 457

V4

Question 457

V1 sends its signal as a perfect ___, so that it is heard much more loudly by V4 target than competing stimuli

Answer 457

phase representation

Question 457

low frequency EEG = ___ signals

Answer 457

feedback

Question 458

top-down =

Answer 458

alpha-beta

Question 459

this phase representation locks itself to ___ somehow, so it only hears this V1 cluster

Answer 459

V4

Question 459

two components of memory:

Answer 459

working memory and long-term memory

Question 459

attended information is transmitted into V4 and its highest ___ point (its peak), while ignored information is transmitted into V4 at its ___ point

Answer 459

excitation ; inhibition

Question 460

what manages phase tuning?

true or false: slow-frequency “top-down” feedback signals from later stages of visual cortex (or PFC) is involved

Answer 460

true

Question 460

two components of long-term memory:

Answer 460

declarative (explicit memory) and nondeclarative (implicit memory

Question 461

two components of declarative (explicit memory)

Answer 461

episodic memory (events) and semantic memory (facts)

Question 461

nondeclarative memory is referred to as ___ memory

Answer 461

implicit memory

Question 461

declarative memory is referred to as ___ memory

Answer 461

explicit

Question 462

is memory formation understood well? or poorly understood?

Answer 462

poorly understood

Question 462

3 components of nondeclarative (implicit) memory

Answer 462

priming, skill learning, and conditioning

Question 463

true or false: minor concussions typically erase memory of recent events

Answer 463

true

Question 463

what must occur over an extended period of time for the memory of an event to last

Answer 463

the brain must be allowed tp “consolidate”

Question 463

can severe concussions eliminate memory of the entire day, week, or more?

Answer 463

yes

Question 464

a rare condition in which a temporary loss of memory function occurs with no apparent cause, lasting 1-24 hours
-all other brain functions are intact, and CT, MRI, PET scans look normal

Answer 464

transient global amnesia

Question 464

are novel memories formed instantly? or does it actually take quite a while for memories to become permanent?

Answer 464

it actually takes quite a while for memories to become permanent

Question 465

with transient global amnesia, immediate recall (~1 min) is normal, along with term memories (longer than ~1 year), but everything in between is temporarily ___

-patients can’t understand what’s happening, and often ask the same series of questions in a “repeating loop”

Answer 465

temporarily lost

Question 465

3 flavors of implicit memory:

Answer 465

priming, skill learning, and conditioning

Question 465

this flavor of implicit memory only works if it happens implicitly (outside our awareness)

Answer 465

priming

Question 465

how are implicit memories formed?

Answer 465

automatically, by mere exposure or by simple association

Question 466

___ involves the implicit presentation of information/cues that have the effect of increasing the probability that a person will respond with a target stimulus (word, object, etc.)

Answer 466

priming

Question 466

how long after a transient global amnesia episode does memory function gradually recover?

can new memories be formed again?

are memories of the TGA event itself permanent, or are they lost?

Answer 466

~24 hours ; yes ; lost

Question 466

are implicit memories easy or difficult to describe?

Answer 466

difficult

Question 467

true or false: V1 attended and V1 unattended both feed into V4

Answer 467

true

Question 468

true or false: priming must remain ‘under the radar’ to work

Answer 468

true

Question 469

personal practice and experience that leads to ‘motor learning’ that is highly resistant to decay - a ‘permanent memory’
ex. you never forget how to catch a ball, or ride a bike

Answer 469

skill learning

Question 470

___ is highly implicit. it is impossible to explain to someone how to swim or ride a bike. they need to learn for themselves

Answer 470

skill learning

Question 471

motor plasticity is revealed through ___

ex. riding a bike is a complicated motor task. many variables must be balanced to manage it well. once you ‘get it,’ it generally stays with you forever, BUT, if you change one part of the process, and try to adapt, strange things happen
(ex. backwards bicycle video)

Answer 471

reprogramming

Question 471

learning that a neutral cue produces an aversive (or appetitive) outcome

Answer 471

classical conditioning

Question 472

___ is one of the best understood sorts of memory, from a neuro standpoint

Answer 472

associative conditioning

Question 473

skin conductance responses (sympathetic) reveal reveal the creation of the new memory association. SC will often show learning effects before or after the subject is able to verbally report the association, demonstrating ‘implicit’ learning?

Answer 473

before

Question 474

classical conditioning depends on intact ___

Answer 474

amygdala

Question 475

“fear potentiation” of the startle reflex is dependent on an intact central nucleus of the subcortical ___. without this part of the brain, fear associations are poorly learned

Answer 475

amygdala

Question 476

the what, where, when, and how of an event (active clusters of activity in visual, auditory, and premotor cortex, etc.) are linked through connections with the HC
-after many years of use, can these clusters gain independence from HC index and develop direct links?

Answer 476

yes

Question 476

in healthy folks, what brain structures are needed to recall an event

Answer 476

1. the parts of the cortex that were active during the original event (sight, smell, sound, feelings, etc.)
2. hippocampus to provide the list of all these elements, so that they can be reactivated when you bring the memory back online

Question 477

explicit learning activates this part of the brain, indicating declarative learning

Answer 477

hippocampus

Question 477

3 basic components of declarative memory:

Answer 477

encoding, storage, and retrieval

Question 477

consistent with the index model, fMRI studies have shown visual cortex reactivation during retrieval of word memories that were formed in combination with ___ stimuli
-thus the text cue evokes the ___ associate in memory

Answer 477

picture ; visual

Question 477

repeated recall of a past event strengthens the direct connections between those parts of the cortex, and eventually the hippocampus is not necessary. how long does this process take?

Answer 477

~6-12 months

Question 477

implicit learning activates this part of the brain

Answer 477

amygdala

Question 478

this working hypothesis of declarative memory function considers the HC as an ‘index’ - a map of memory elements

Answer 478

the hippocampal “index model”

Question 478

why does head trauma affect memory more than other brain functions?

Answer 478

it is not clear, but it could be that memory depends on structures located in the middle of the brain, where shearing, twisting forces concentrate (medial temporal lobe structures)

Question 478

HM’s declarative deficits were linked primarily to the loss of the ___

Answer 478

hippocampus

Question 479

both retrieval and encoding are somehow connected with the ___, which stores the “index” of an event

Answer 479

hippocampus

Question 480

during retrieval of word memories that were formed in combination with sound stimuli, the ___ cortex is reactivated

Answer 480

auditory cortex

Question 481

true or false: L IFG activity is weaker during memory retrieval

Answer 481

false ; stronger

Question 481

memory encoding: we see greater IFG activity during ___ (deep) compared to ___ (shallow) strategy use

Answer 481

semantic (deep) ; phonological (shallow)

Question 481

encoding has been linked to

Answer 481

left IFG

Question 481

from behavioral memory research, we know that greater ___ improves performance. in other words, the more deeply we think about an item, the more likely we are to remember it later

Answer 481

depth processing

Question 481

deep thinking engages left inferior frontal cortex, or ___, known to be involved in language processing

Answer 481

broca’s area

Question 481

more left IFG activity during ___ vs. ___ memory encoding

Answer 481

semantic vs. sound

Question 481

clearly recalled items are associated with more ___ parietal activity

Answer 481

ventral parietal

Question 481

correctly remembered word trials showed much more ___ activity

Answer 481

L IFG

Question 482

low-confidence items are associated with more ___ parietal activity

Answer 482

dorsal parietal

Question 482

retrieval has been linked to

Answer 482

left IFG and posterior parietal cortex

Question 483

both ___ (receptors, dendrites) and ___ processes (large cortical networks) are involved in memory consolidation

Answer 483

subcellular and systemic processes

Question 483

selectively interrupting different stages of sleep reveals that stage 4 “___” sleep is especially critical to memory retention the following day

Answer 483

“slow-wave”

Question 483

how do we determine which things to remember and which to forget?

Answer 483

it’s unclear

Question 483

one likely component to consolidation

Answer 483

sleep

Question 484

memory consolidation has been shown to involve ___ and ___ scales that vary widely

Answer 484

spatial and temporal

Question 484

neurocognitive processing during sleep can benefit memory storage when memories are covertly cued via ___ and ___ stimulation

Answer 484

auditory and olfactory

Question 484

learned spatial associations that were ___ during slow wave sleep were remembered better in human trials

Answer 484

re-cued

Question 485

true or false: the information that ultimately remains available for retrieval may tend to be that which is reactivated during sleep

Answer 485

true

Question 486

this view of reconsolidation states that the stored memory is stable; the “original” copy is read out at retrieval

Answer 486

classic view of reconsolidation

Question 486

memories are gradually altered over time through ___

Answer 486

reconsolidation

Question 486

ex. of reconsolidation

Answer 486

memories that are repeatedly recounted tend to put the narrator in a better light

Question 486

this view of reconsolidation states that the stored memory is malleable; the “most recently” accessed copy is read out at retrieval

Answer 486

modern view of reconsolidation

Question 486

reconsolidation has been used in ___ patients to weaken the persistent emotional associations typically evoked by traumatic memories

Answer 486

PTSD

Question 486

over time, the hippocampal index becomes less important in memory recall. how long?

Answer 486

~1 year

Question 486

a set of processes that transfer hippocampus-mediated to direct cortical connections

Answer 486

consolidation

Question 486

is memory consolidation well understood?

Answer 486

no ; poorly understood