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PSYC 4140 - Cognitive Neuroscience > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

a major goal of cognitive neuroscience is to define the relationships between ___

A

brain structure, brain function, and “consciousness”

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2
Q

brain structure pertains to:

A

distinct units (how they’re connected)

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3
Q

brain function pertains to:

A

how the units of the brain operate in real time

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4
Q

consciousness refers to:

A

an emergent property of brain function

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5
Q

what does EEG stand for?

A

electroencephalography

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6
Q

electroencephalography (EEG) provides excellent ____ resolution, but poor ____ resolution

A

temporal ; spatial (when but not exactly where)

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7
Q

millisecond time resolution is characteristic of which noninvasive method?

A

electroencephalography (EEG)

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8
Q

what does fMRI stand for?

A

functional magnetic resonance imaging

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9
Q

fMRI provides excellent ____ resolution, but poor ____ resolution

A

spatial ; poor (where, but not exactly when)

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10
Q

cognitive neuroscience was born from the combination of three related fields of research on the brain and behavior:

A

cognitive psychology, neurology, and neurophysiology/neuroimaging

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11
Q

how the brain works in healthy folks

A

cognitive psychology

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12
Q

cognitive psychology data was explicitly ____ based

A

behavior (avoids brain)

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13
Q

how brain damage affects behavior in clinical patients

A

neurology

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14
Q

neurology data was ____ based

A

deficit (behavior-brain linked)

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15
Q

how healthy brains work in animal models, later including humans with the development of noninvasive brain recording methods

A

neurophysiology/neuroimaging

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16
Q

true or false: despite lots of investigation, there is little agreement about what consciousness is, and how it might be studied

A

true

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17
Q

over the last ~2 million years, the human cortex has nearly ____ in size

A

tripled

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18
Q

cortex = ____

A

cerebral cortex

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19
Q

the cortex consists of mostly ____ tissue

A

homogeneous

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20
Q

the cortex is greatly ____ in primates and is critical to (but not sufficient for) “____” cognition

A

expanded ; “higher-order”

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21
Q

“subcortex” refers to

A

everything else in the brain

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22
Q

cerebellum, thalamus, basal ganglia, amygdala, hippocampus, midbrain, brainstem, etc

A

subcortex

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23
Q

the subcortex is ____ in size and internal structure

A

variable

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24
Q

the subcortex is similar in ____ and ____ with other mammals

A

structure and function

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25
Q

the subcortex is also essential to ____

A

higher order cognition

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26
Q

what are the three main components of the cortical surface?

A

gyrus, sulcus, and fissure

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27
Q

rounded protrusion of surface cortex (“mountain”)

A

gyrus

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28
Q

depression in surface cortex (“valley”)

A

sulcus

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29
Q

a particularly deep sulcus

A

fissure

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30
Q

____ of cortical surface is hidden in sulci and fissures (sulci within sulci)

A

2/3

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31
Q

cortical folding refers to cortical “____”

A

cortical “packaging”

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32
Q

cortical folding allows _____, and (maybe) speeds cortical processing time by keeping all brain regions relatively close together

A

lots of tissue in a small space

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33
Q

4 cortical lobes:

A
  1. frontal lobe
  2. parietal lobe
  3. temporal lobe
  4. occipital lobe
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34
Q

the boundary region between cortical and subcortical structures located between the frontal lobe and temporal lobe

A

insula

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35
Q

the ____ is where the first stage of cortical processing occurs

A

the “primary sensory” cortex

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36
Q

V1 =

A

primary visual cortex

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37
Q

V2 =

A

primary auditory cortex

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38
Q

S1 =

A

sensory

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39
Q

M1 =

A

motor

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40
Q

this view states that the thalamus relays sensory and motor signals up to the cortical processing areas, and downstream to the brainstem (except smell)

A

classic view

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41
Q

recent work has identified that the structure of the thalamus is mostly (~80%) connections from one region of the cortex to another region of the cortex

A

modern view

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42
Q

the thalamus is heavily involved in _____ connections

A

cortico-cortical

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43
Q

rather than primarily carrying sensory input to cortex, and motor signals out to the body (“first order” connections”), the thalamus is instead heavily involved in cortico-cortical connections, which are referred to as ____

A

“higher order” connections

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44
Q

firing modes appear to enhance (____) or inhibit (____) the ‘quality of a connection between brain regions

A

burst ; tonic

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45
Q

the firing mode is changed by relatively long periods of ____ or ____ input from brain stem and cortex

A

excitatory ; inhibitory

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46
Q

two divisions of the nervous system

A

peripheral and central

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47
Q

the autonomic nervous system is part of the ____ nervous system

A

peripheral

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48
Q

two components of the autonomic nervous system

A

sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

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49
Q

the ____ nervous system controls self-regulated action of internal organs and glands

A

autonomic

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50
Q

the ____ nervous system controls AROUSING for non-digestive organ systems

A

sympathetic

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51
Q

the ____ nervous system controls CALMING for non-digestive organ systems

A

parasympathetic

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52
Q

the ___ is mostly concerned with housekeeping of the body, but can show strong effects of mental state, such as anticipation or threat reactivity

A

autonomic nervous system

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53
Q

the ___ branch tends to prepare the body for intense action ; ‘fight or flight’

A

sympathetic branch

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54
Q

the ____ branch tends to maintain homeostasis and repair ; ‘rest and digest’

A

parasympathetic branch

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55
Q

our brains make up ____% of our body weight, but consume ____% of our metabolic resources

A

2% ; 20%

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56
Q

functional imaging is dependent on ____ to track brain activity

A

blood flow

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57
Q

____ were historically considered “support” cells for neurons

A

glial cells

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58
Q

we think that there is approximately ____ glial cell for each neuron in the brain

A

one

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59
Q

excitatory and inhibitory from other neurons

A

neuronal input

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60
Q

neuronal summation occurs at the ____

A

axon hillock

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61
Q

how does neuronal output travel

A

down the axon to synapse with next neuron

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62
Q

the ____ neuron releases neurotransmitter (NT) into the synapse, which modulates activity of the ____ neuron, depending on the neurotransmitter and the receptor type

A

presynaptic ; postsynaptic

63
Q

basal forebrain constellation of cholinergic neurons, including basal nucleus of meynert ; dorsolateral pontine tegmental constellation of cholinergic neurons

A

acetylcholine

64
Q

is acetylcholine more widespread or more limited?

A

widespread

65
Q

is serotonin more widespread or more limited?

A

widespread

66
Q

is dopamine more widespread or more limited?

A

more limited

67
Q

the function of this neurotransmitter is to enable muscle action, learning, and memory

A

acetylcholine

68
Q

with alzheimer’s disease, ACh-producing neurons ____

A

deteriorate

69
Q

the function of this neurotransmitter is to influence movement, learning, attention, and emotion

A

dopamine

70
Q

excess dopamine receptor activity is linked to ____

A

schizophrenia

71
Q

starved of dopamine, the brain produces the tremors and decreased mobility of ____

A

parkinson’s disease

72
Q

the function of this neurotransmitter is to affect mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

A

serotonin

73
Q

undersupply of serotonin is linked to ____

A

depression

74
Q

____ and some other antidepressant drugs raise serotonin levels

A

prozac

75
Q

the function of this neurotransmitter is to help control alertness and arousal

A

norepinephrine

76
Q

undersupply of this neurotransmitter can depress mood

A

norepinephrine

77
Q

___ is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter

A

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

78
Q

undersupply of this neurotransmitter is linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia

A

GABA

79
Q

____ is a major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

A

glutamate

80
Q

oversupply of this neurotransmitter can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures (which is why some people avoid MSG in food)

A

glutamate

81
Q

“___” and “___” signals (from other neurons) flow through dendrites and cell body to the axon hillock where these signals are averaged together across the cell and over a short period of time (“___”)

A

“go” and “stop” ; “summation”)

82
Q

if ‘go’ signals win, the action potential is the ____ response

A

all or none

83
Q

neurons fire at a ____ intensity

A

fixed

84
Q

continuous ‘go’ input can increase the firing rate to the limit of the refractory period, perhaps up to ____ times per second

A

1000

85
Q

(EEG) records the electrical activity of the ____ in real time

A

cortex

86
Q

____ brain activity is missing from EEG

A

non-cortical

87
Q

pyramidal neurons in the cortex are oriented in ____

A

columns

88
Q

as these neurons sum input from other neurons, their electrical charge becomes more _____ near the outside surface of the cortex

A

voltage-negative

89
Q

real time or “____” EEG is useful for tracking long-lasting ‘____’ mental states, like alertness or sleep

A

“raw” ; ‘tonic’

90
Q

repeated averaging enhances the small but consistent ‘hidden’ signal

A

event-related potential (ERP)

91
Q

true or false: brains will respond pretty much the same on trial one as they do on trial one-thousand

A

true

92
Q

true or false: different people’s brains respond differently

A

false; they respond similarly

93
Q

averaging reveals the small, consistent EERP from the noisy EEG background, sort of like averaging the single pictures of a movie - the ____ elements remain

A

consistent

94
Q

things that do not change appear ____, while things that do change ____ together

A

bolder ; blend

95
Q

with ERP, ____ increases, and ____ decreases

A

signal ; noise

96
Q

what does ERP stand for?

A

event-related potential

97
Q

early ERP components (~100 ms after stimulus onset) are mostly driven by basic ____ features, like intensity

A

stimulus

98
Q

early ERP components are sometimes called ____ components, because they are determined outside the body

A

exogenous

99
Q

later ERP components (~250+ ms after stimulus onset) are mostly driven by _____ meaning of stimuli

A

psychological meaning

100
Q

later ERP components are sometimes called the _____ components, because they are determined inside the body

A

endogeneous

101
Q

the first ERP component related to a psychological process was the ____

A

P300

102
Q

a big ERP shift ~300 ms after a ‘rare’ event

A

the P300

103
Q

the P300 was (and is) a hot area of study because it revealed brain reactivity to all sorts of ‘psychological events,’ including ____ events

A

missing

104
Q

the P3 is not a sensory response - the P3 can also reflect a ____

A

broken expectation

105
Q

____ is not recognized in the P3 (it often falls into the background) whereas ____ is noticed immediately

A

consistently ; change

106
Q

a major problem with ERP

A

source localization

107
Q

because the brain is ____, not all parts of the brain are perpendicular to the scalp

A

folded

108
Q

the ____ the activity is from the scalp, the ____ the signal (known as volume conduction)

A

farther ; weaker

109
Q

as the signal travels, it spreads out, and loses strength (relationship between depth and strength)

A

volume conduction

110
Q

true or false: strong EEEG voltage could represent weak activity close to the scalp OR strong activity from deeper in the brain

A

true

111
Q

EEG/ERP source localization limitation: electrical activity ____ or _____ among folded sections of cortex

A

combines or cancels

112
Q

EEG/ERP source localization limitation: source ____ is difficult to distinguish from source depth

A

strength

113
Q

EEG/ERP source localization limitation: the exact ____ of sources is unknown

A

number

114
Q

EEG/ERP source localization limitation: each person’s head _____ is slightly different

A

anatomy

115
Q

what does MEG stand for?

A

magnetoencephalography

116
Q

MEG looks for the ____ field that accompanies the voltage field

A

magnetic

117
Q

MEG has the same ____ resolution as ERPs, but better ____ resolution than ERPs

A

temporal ; spatial

118
Q

what does SQUIDS stand for?

A

superconducting quantum interference devices

119
Q

do magnetic fields spread out like electric fields as they pass through the brain and skull?

A

no

120
Q

without the smearing effect of volume conduction, MEG is only limited by the ____ and ____ of SQUIDS

A

size and number

121
Q

MEG loses sensitivity sharply about ____ cm from the SQUID

A

5 cm

122
Q

MEG is effectively blind to ___ brain structures

A

deep

123
Q

MEG is really great for ____ cortical tissue, but has no sensitivity to deep cortical stuff

A

surface

124
Q

what does fMRI stand for?

A

functional magnetic resonance imaging

125
Q

fMRI yields colorful images that represent the ____ of brain activity with good precision, in a way that is easy to grasp

A

location

126
Q

3 elements of MRI:

A
  1. strong, fixed magnet
  2. radio emitter and receiver
  3. weak, variable magnets
127
Q

magnetic hydrogen protons (in water) align with the field, and spin at a known rate (128 MHz for a 3T scanner)

A

strong, fixed magnet

128
Q

resonance radio wave energy at 128 MHz will “resonate with H protons and tilt them away from the main field

A

radio emitter and receiver

129
Q

imaging smaller fields are added to across the area to be scanned, which allow a 2D image to be constructed

A

weak, variable magnets

130
Q

this imaging method essentially detects the density of ____ in tissue, produces a stack of sharp images in about 15 minutes

A

structural MRI

131
Q

this imaging method involves repeated, lower-resolution imaging of the brain, showing interest in image intensity as it CHANGES OVER TIME)

A

functional MRI (fMRI)

132
Q

instead of focusing on water concentration, fMRI focuses on the small changes in signal intensity that accompany changes in local ____ oxygenation (BOLD contrast)

A

blood oxygenation

133
Q

what does BOLD contrast stand for?

A

blood oxygen level dependent

134
Q

high activity states trigger local increases in blood flow and volume (via astrocytes)
the “resupply” exceeds demand by about ____%

A

30%

135
Q

this 30% excess of oxygenated blood ____ MRI signal intensity, because oxygenated blood contains slightly ____ iron than deoxygenated blood

A

increases ; less

136
Q

how does iron affect magnetic fields?

A

it perturbs magnetic fields and causes signal intensity to sharply drop

137
Q

because BOLD tracks the blood flow change, and not the neural activity that triggered it, BOLD signal onset is ____ and lasts for several seconds after scene offset

A

delayed

138
Q

fMRI’s biggest weakness:

A

the typical fMRI sampling rate is far slower than the speed of the brain

139
Q

true or false: consciousness is defined as correlated activity across at least 75% of the brain

A

false; there is little agreement about what consciousness is

140
Q

true or false: consciousness is defined as the electrochemical activity of the brain oscillating above ~15 Hz

A

false; there is little agreement about what consciousness is

141
Q

human skull volume has ____ over the last 2 million years

A

tripled

142
Q

human skull volume has ____ over the last 5,000 years
a. remained stable
b. increased slightly
c. doubled
d. tripled

A

a. remained stable

143
Q

human cortex shows unique structural features, such as:
a. homogeneous tissue organized in columns and layers
b. dense convolutions, including gyri and sulci
c. left-right symmetry in structure
d. all of the above

A

d. all of the above

144
Q

true or false: the fissures of the cortex are unique to all individuals

A

false

145
Q

true or false: subcortical structures operate independently from the cortex

A

false

146
Q

true or false: the cerebral cortex contains primarily neurons, while subcortical structures are primarily glial cells

A

false

147
Q

true or false: the autonomic nervous system is part of the central nervous system

A

false; part of the peripheral nervous system

148
Q

true or false: psychological states can strongly influence the autonomic nervous system

A

true

149
Q

what autonomic branch would be expected to be more active after eating a large meal?

A

parasympathetic

150
Q

the thalamus may be critical to consciousness because of its:
a. broad structural connectivity with cortex and brainstem
b. high proportion of cortical - cortical connections
c. capability to switch between “burst” and “tonic” modes of transmission
d. all of the above

A

d. all of the above

151
Q

a neuron is more likely to fire when:
a. excitatory input arrives on the cell body, vs. a dendrite
b. multiple excitatory inputs arrive simultaneously, vs. over time
c. excitatory input at the hillock follows multiple inhibitory inputs on the dendrites
d. all of the above

A

d. all of the above

152
Q

neurons fire at a ____ intensity

A

fixed

153
Q

a neuron is more likely to fire when:
a. excitatory input arrives on the cell body, vs. a dendrite
b. multiple excitatory inputs arrive simultaneously, vs. over time
c. inhibitory input at the hillock follows multiple inhibitory inputs on the dendrites
d. all of the above

A

b. multiple excitatory inputs arrive simultaneously, vs. over time

PSYC 4140 - Cognitive Neuroscience (4 decks)

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