Final Exam Flashcards
1
Q
Define Physiology
A
The branch of biology that concentrates on studying the normal function of a living organism and its parts.
2
Q
What does a fertilized egg do?
A
Divides, those cells proliferate, differenciate and self assemble
3
Q
What is the basic unit of the body?
A
A cell
4
Q
How many cells do we have?
A
100 trillion
5
Q
T/F Cells are specialized
A
True
6
Q
What are cells organized into?
A
Tissues and Organs
7
Q
What are cells held together by?
A
extra-cellular structures
8
Q
What do cells require to live?
A
Water Oxygen Ions amino Acids Other nutrients
9
Q
Where do cells obtain their input materials and release their output materials to?
A
Extra cellular fluid
10
Q
How much of the human body is essentially water?
A
60%
11
Q
How much of the water that makes up the human body is extracellular fluid?
A
1/3 of 60% water so about 20% of the water is ECF
12
Q
How much intracellular fluid makes up the fluid in the body?
A
2/3
13
Q
How is the volume and composition of the ECF controlled?
A
Homeostatic mechanisms
14
Q
What is critical to maintain life in terms of ECF?
A
The compositon
15
Q
Define Homeostasis
A
A state of equlibrium within living organisms characterized by the maintainence of nearly constant internal environmental conditions. All organs and tissues participate.
16
Q
How many Liters of water in a 70 kg male?
A
42 Liters ( 60%)
17
Q
What makes up the extracellular fluid?
A
Blood Plasma
Intersticial Fluid
Transcellular fluid
18
Q
How much of the body is intracellular fluid?
A
60% of the water in the body or 25 liters
19
Q
What mediates the constant mixing of ECF?
A
Blood Plasma
20
Q
How much of the bodies water is in the blood plasma?
A
7% or 3 L
21
Q
What is intersticial fluid?
A
fluid in spaces between cells in tissues (fluid inbetween the plama membrane and capillary endothelium)
22
Q
What makes up intersticial fluid
A
Bulk intersticial (61.5%) Bone (7.6 %) Dense CT (23%)
23
Q
How much of the bodies water is intersticial fluid?
A
31% (Mostly Bulk intersticial)
24
Q
What is transcellular fluid?
A
Fluid in spaces surrounded by epithelia (Joint synvial fluid, CSF)
25
How much of the bodies water is transcellular fluid?
1 Liter or 2.38%
26
Why is there a difference in chemical composition of intracellular aand extracellular fluids?
Difference is due to control of transport of these substances accross the plasma membrane.
27
What do G cells secrete?
Gastrin into the blood stream
28
What do parietal cells secrete?
HCl and intrinsic factor
29
What do Mucus Neck cells secrete?
Mucus
30
What do chief cells secrete?
pepsinogen and gastric lipase
31
What do Enteroendochrine cells (G cells)
| Secrete?
Gastrin
32
What lines the gastric pit?
Simple columner epithelium with Mucus suface cells
33
What type of cells are found in the gastric glands?
Parietal, Mucus Neck Chief and G cells
34
What does Submucosal Plexus control?
Secretion
35
What type of transport is used for HCl secretion
Active-Protons are pumped out of the cell in exchange for a potassium ion
36
What enzyme catalyzes the reaction in parietal cells?
Carbonic Anydrase-abundant?
37
How are chloride ions released into the gastric lumen?
Diffusion
38
T/F Choloride and Protons are released seperately into the gastric lumen
True!
39
How is HCl formed in the parietal cell?
Via the Carbonic Anyhydrase which is abundant in the pareietal cells
40
Where are H+ K+ ATPase located in the pareital cells?
Apical Membrane that faces the lumen
41
What provides energy for the outward transport of H+
ATPase
42
What is H+-K+ATPase inhibited by?
Omeprazole
43
What does omeprazole treat?
Gastric and duodenal ulcers
44
What provides energy for the active transport of Cl- across the pareital membrane?
The downhill movement of HCO3+
45
What is the function of HCl?
1. Eliminates ingested bacteria
2. Facilitates protein digestion
3. Provides acidic environment essential for the activation and function of pepsin
46
What stimulates the secretion of gastric HCl?
Acetylcholine
Histamine
Gastrin
*through several second messenger systems
47
What inhibits gastric HCI secretion?
Somatostatin
48
Parasympathetic _____ induces _____ release
Parasympathetic Stimulattion induces ACh release
49
where are the G cells located?
The Antrum
50
What does gastrin do?
Stimulates HCl and pepsinogen secretion; and motility
51
What is released from the enterochrochromaffin like cells?
Histamine
52
What is the function of histamine?
- Direct stimulation of HCl
- Increase the secretion induced by ACh or gastrin
- It is a paracrine agent
53
What receptors does Histamine stimulate?
H2 receptors on the pareital Cells
54
What is the function of Cimetidine?
It inhibits acid secretion by blocking H2 receptors
55
What is the most important trigger for pepsinogen secretion?
Vagal Stimulation
56
When is pepsinogen active?
Only in a highly acid environment (1.8-3.5)
57
What is essential for protein digestion in the stomach?
HCl and Pepsin
58
What does pepsin do?
Breaks down peptide bonds found in proteins
59
What does intrinsic factor form a complex with?
Vitamin B-12
60
Once a complex forms from vitamin B-12 and Intrinsic facor, what does the complex do?
Binds to specific receptors in the ileum and then is absorbed via endocytosis
61
If someone has undergone abdominal surgery and are intrinsic factor deficient what are they vunerable to?
Iron deficiency anemia so they much eat frequently
62
What is dumping syndrome?
- develops following removal of part of the stomach
- Anastomosis of the jejunum to the stomach
- Rapid entry of hypertonic meals into intestine
63
What is the role of mucus in the stomach
Forms a gel like protective barrier butween glandular cells and lumen
64
Mucus is secreted by ______ and _____ in the ___ and _____ regions of the stomach
Mucus is secreted by Mucus Neck Cells and surface epithelial cells in the body and fundus regions of the stomach.
65
How often do epithelial cells get replaced?
every 3-6 days
66
What happens in the cephalic phase of digestive regulation?
1. Somatostain inhibits gatrin secretion
| 2. Vagus nerve inhibits the release of Somatostatin
67
What kickstarts the cephalic phase?
Sight, smell, or presence of food in the mouth
68
What mediates the cephalic phase?
Vagus nerves originate in the medulla oblongota
69
What initiates the cephalic phase secretion?
Stimulation of the enteric neurons by vagal fibers
70
What directly stimulates the pareital,mucus, and chief cells during the cephalic phase?
the post ganglionic parasympathetic fibers
71
What do the post ganglioic parasympathetic indirectly stimulate during the cephalic phase?
G cells by inducing gastrin
72
What are the primary stimuli of the gastric phase?
Distention of the stomach
Gradual increase in the pH of gastric contents
Presence of protein breakdown products
73
What senses elevated pH during the gastric phase?
Chemoreceptors
74
What senses distention of the stomach during the gastric phase?
Stretch Receptors
75
Wat do the stretch receptors and chemoreceptors send the signal to?
Submucosal and Myenteric Plexuses
76
What occurs during the intestinal phase?
Enterogastric reflex
77
What elicits the intestinal phase?
Entry of acidic chyme into the duodenum
78
what is the purpose of the intestinal phase?
Control the rate of gastric emptying (enterogastric reflex)
79
What happens during the enterogastric reflex?
The duodenum sends inhibitory signals to the stomach by way of both the nervous and hormonal reflexes
80
what is acid, pepsin secretion and gastric motility inhibited by in the intestinal phase?
the presence of
| fat, carbs, acid, etc. in the duodenum
81
What triggers the enterogastric reflex?
Distention of the stomach
82
What type of secretions are secreted during the intestinal phase for protection?
Mucus- from acid and enzymes
83
What inhibits gastric secretions in the stomach?
Duodenal secretion
CCK
GIP
84
Stomach emptying is ________ by the _____ _______,_______ and _____ in the duodenum.
Stomach emptying is inhibited by the enterogastric reflex, enterogastrones and fat in the duodenum.
85
What regulates gastric emptying?
Hormonal and Neuronal Reflexes
86
What do duodenal entero-endocrine cells secrete in the presence of fatty, hypertonic, acidic chyme in the duodenum?
Enterogastrones (CCK, Secretin, VIP)
87
What happens when enterogastrones (Hormones) such as Secretin, CCK and VIP are secreted?
Contractile force and rate of stomach emptying decline
88
What do chemoreceptors and stretch receptors target in the presence of fatty, hypertonic and acidic chyme in the duodenum?
Enteric neurons via short reflexes and CNS centers(SNS activity(kickstarted) and parasympathetic activity) via long reflexes
89
As a result of enterogastrone secretion, enteric neuron stimulation and CNS stimulation what happens in terms of the intestinal phase?
Contractile force and rate of gastric emptying decline
90
What activates the cephalic phase?
prior to food entry
91
What activates the gastric phase?
Food Enters the Stomach
92
What activates the intestinal phase?
Partially digested food enters the duodenum
93
What are the three phases of gastric secretion regulation?
Cephalic, Gastric and Intestinal
94
Myentric Plexus is located ______
1
95
G Cells are located mainly in the _____
1
96
Secretion of HCl is stimulated by the _____
1
97
The major inhibitory mechanism of HCl is ______
1
98
The stimuli for the cephalic phase include _____ and _____ & _____.
Sight, Smell and presence of food in the mouth
99
Gastrin Stimulates ____,_____, and ____.
1
100
Pareital Cells secrete _____ and _____.
1
101
Pancreas facilates the process of _____ and ______
Absorbtion and digestion
102
What are the two components that the exocrine juice consists of?
Aqueous and Enzyme component
103
What does the aqueous component of the exocrine juice consist of?
HCO-
104
What is the function of the aqueous part of the exocrine juice?
Facilitates neutralization of duodenal contents
105
what does secretin elicit?
bicarbonate secretion
106
What does the enzyme portion of exocrine juice consit of?
Enzymes that aid in digestion of proteins, carbs and fats
107
What promotes the secretion of the enzyme component of the exocrine juice?
CCK
108
Where is the endocrine portion located in the pancreas?
Islets of langerhans
109
What percent of total volume is the endocrine secretion in the pancreas?
Less than 2%
110
What hormones are secreted by the endocrine cells?
Insulin, Glucagon. somatostatin
111
What structures/Cells are found in the pancreas?
Acini (dark clusters)-99%
| Islets of Langerhans (1%)-Pale Stain
112
What do the acini produce?
Pancreatic Juice
113
What do the islets of langerhan produce?
Hormones
114
What secretes the enzymic component of pancreatic juice?
Acini
115
Where does the duodenum fuse with the bile duct?
The hepatopancreatic ampulla
116
What controls the entry of pancreatic juice and bile?
Sphincter of Oddi (hepatopancreatic sphincter)
117
What is pancreatic juice made of?
water
Enzymes
Bicarbonate Ions
118
What releases bicarbonate ions in the pancreatic juice from the pancreas?
Small Ducts (make it alkaline ---pH 8
119
What does Bile, intestinal and pancreatic secretion allow for?
neutralization of the acidic doudenal contents
120
What does the enzyme component of the pancreastic juice do?
Produces complete breakdown of food
121
What enzymes are found in the enzyme rrich portion of the pancretic juice?
Major proteases:
Trypsin
Chymotrypsin
Carboxypeptidase
122
What is enteropeptidase?
A brush border enzyme that is involved in the activation of trypsinogen
123
What does the trypsin inhibitor do?
prevents premature activation of proenzymes in the pancreatic ducts
124
What promotes the release of pancretic juice neurally?
Vagal stimulation during the cephalic and intestinal phases of gastric secretion
125
What does the CCK do?
- induces the secretion of enzyme rich pancreatic juice
| - Stimulates gallbladder to release stored bile
126
What does secretin do?
- Causes secretion of bicarbonate rich pancreatic juice
- It also acts on the liver to secrete more bile
- Inhibits gastric motility and gastrin mediated effects on pareital cells
127
T/F secretion is rich in enzymes
False! It is poor in enzymes
128
What is secretin secreted by?
S Cells of the duodenum
129
What is secretin secreted in response to?
H+ and fatty acids in the lumen of the duodenum
130
What cells does secretin act on?
Ductal cells that then produces alkaline rich pancreatic juice
131
What is CCK secreted by?
I Cells in the duodenum
132
What is CCK released in response to?
Fatty Acids
Peptides
Amino Acids
133
What is the Function of CCK?
1. Stimulation of the secretion of enzyme rich pancreatic juice
2. Potentiates the stimulatory effects of secretin (secredtion of bicarb)
3. Stimulates the gall bladder to releaase stored bile
134
Where is Gastrin Found?
Stomach
135
What stimulates the secretion of gastrin?
1. Food in the Stomach
| 2. ACH released by nerve fibers
136
What is the action of gastrin?
1. Stimulates the release of gastric juice
| 2. Stimulates Stomach Emptying
137
Where is intestinal gastrin found?
Duodenum
138
what is the stimulus for intestinal gastrin secretion?
Acidic food in the stomach
139
What is the action od intestinal gastrin?
Stimulates gastrin emptying and emptying
140
Where is Histamine Hormone found?
Stomach
141
What is the stimulus for histamine secretion?
Food in the stomach
142
What is the action of histamine?
Activates pareital cells to secrete HCl
143
Where is the hormone somatostatin found?
Stomach and Duodenum
144
What is the stimulus for Somatostatin secretion?
Food in the stomach stimulated by sympathetic nerve fibers
145
What is the action of somatostatin?
1. Inhibits secretion of gastric and pancreatic juice
2. Inhibits emptying of stomach and gallbladder
(Braking mechanism)
146
Where is Secretin,CCK
| and Gastric Inhibitory peptide found?
Duodenum
147
What is the stimulus for secretin secretion?
Acidic chyme and partially digested foods in the duodenum
148
What is the action of secretin?
1. Increases Output of pancretic juice rich in bicarb ions
2. Increases Bile Output by liver
3. Inhibits gastric motility and gastric gland secretion
149
What is the stimulus for CCK secretion?
Fatty Chyme and partially digested proteins in the duodenum
150
What is the action of CCK?
1. Increases Output of enzyme rich pancreatic juice
2. Stimulates gallbladder to expel stored bile
3. Releases Sphinctor of duodenal papilla to allow bile and pancreatic juice to enter the duodenum
151
What is the stimulus for Gastric Inhibitory peptide?
Fatty Chyme in the duodenum
152
What is an important brush border enzyme for carbohydrate digestion?
Na-Glucose Cotransporter (same direction)
153
What carbohydrate is transported via facilitated diffusion at the apical membrane in the small intestine?
Fructose
154
How do Glucose and Galactose get through the apical membrane in the small intestine?
A cotransporter (sodium glucose transporter) SGLT1
155
How do glucose, fructose and galactose all cross the basolateral membrane?
Facilitated Diffusion
156
What does pepsin do in the Stomach?
Hydrolyzes proteins into peptides
157
What two molecules digest proteins in the stomach?
HCl-denatures
| Pepsin-Hydrolyzes
158
How are proteins digested in the pancreas?
Digestive Enzymes and Brush Border Enzymes
159
How do digestive enzymes digest protein?
Split peptide bonds between different amino acids
160
How do brush border enzymes digest proteins?
(Carboxypeptidase, aminopeptidase, dipeptidase) split off amino acid at amino end of molecule or split dipeptide
161
How are lipids digested?
Lipase and Colipse break down triglycerides into A monoglyceride and free fatty acid
162
What are the breakdown products of Lipases?
Monoglyceride and Free Fatty Acid
163
Explain the Mechanism of Lipid Digestion
1. Large fat droplets from stomach are coated with bile salts from the liver and are emulsified
2. Pancreatic lipse and colipase break down fats into momoglycerides and fatty acids stored in micelles
3. Monoglycerides and fatty acids move out of micelles and enter cells by diffusion
164
What is a property of bile salts?
Ampiphic (hydrophobic and hydrophilic ) property
165
How do fatty acids and monoglycerides enter intestinal cells?
Diffusion
166
After fatty acids and monoglycerides enter the intestinal cell what are they combined with?
Triglycerides, cholesterol
| proteins to form chylomichrons
167
How are chylomicrons extruded?
Exocytosis
168
After extrusion what happens to chlylomicrons?
They enter lacteals and are transported to the circulation via lymph
169
What are the functions of the female reproductive system?
1. Production of the oocyte (Female Gamete-most important)
2. Providing the environment for the acceptance of spermatozoa and for the fertilization of the ovum.
3. Providing the environment for the growth and nutrition of the fetus.
4. To give birth at the appropriate time
170
The reproductive tract of a female is a ______ system that starts with the ____ and ______ and ends at the ______
is a tubular system that starts with the ovary and infundibulum and ends at vulva
171
The Ovary produces and releases _____.
oocytes
172
The ovary is a Endocrine/exocrine gland that secretes ____ and _______.
Estrogen and progesterone
173
What is the infundibulum?
is a funnel-like ending of uterine tube that catches the oocyte that was released from ovary.
174
What captures the oocyte?
Oviduct (Fallopian Tube)
175
Where does fertilization occur in the female?
Ampulla of the oviduct
176
What is the uterine wall made of?
Endomeitrium and myometrium
177
What is the oviduct?
a tube that transports the egg to the uterus.
178
Where does fertization occur?
Oviduct-just past the infundibulum
179
The cervix is a _____
sphinctor
180
Entrance to the vagina is called the _____
Vestibule (Covered by the hymen)
181
Clitirous has ______
somatosensory innervation
182
What is the wall of the oviduct made of?
Walls contain smooth muscles, cells with cilia and secretory cells. These components assist the support and transport of sperm and egg.
183
What are the three parts of the uterus?
1. Two horns
2. Body
3. Cervix
184
What happens in the body of the uterus?
Development of the fetus
185
What holds the uterus in place?
Broad ligament
186
What are the basic units of female reproduction?
Follicles
187
The medulla of the ovary is ____
highly vascular
188
Females are born with ovaries that contain a finite number of ______ _______.
Primordial follicles
189
What is contained within each primordial follicle?
primary oocyte
190
What cells secrete estrogen?
Granulosa cells
191
What hormone triggers ovulation?
A surge of lutenizing hormone
192
What does progesterone inhibit
GnRH and gonadotropins
193
What is an important function of progesterone?
inhibits ovulation
194
What are the two layers of the endomeitrium?
1. basalis
| 2. Functionalis
195
What happens at Phase 0 of ventricular muscle action potential?
Depolarization)- Fast Na+ channels open, then slow Ca++ (Straight Line going up)
196
What happens at Phase 1 of ventricular muscle action potential?
(Slight Repolarization)- K+ channels open
| Apex of Graph
197
What happens at Phase 2 of ventricular muscle action potential?
(Plateau)- Slow Ca++ channels open, decreased permeability to K+
198
What happens at Phase 3 of ventricular muscle action potential?
(Repolarization) K+ channels open
| Straight line going down
199
What happens at Phase 4 of ventricular muscle action potential?
(Resting membrane potential- (-85 to -95 mV))
200
What are the Two Phases of the cardiac cycle?
Phase 1: Ventricular Systole (Contaction of the ventricle myocardium)
Phase 2: Diastole (Relaxation of ventricular myocardium)
201
What steps are in Phase 1 of the Cardiac Cycle?
1. Isovolumic Contraction
| 2. Ventricular Ejection
202
What steps are in the Diastole Phase of the cardiac Cycle?
3. Isovolumic Relaxion
4. Rapid Inflow
5. Diastasis
6. Atrial Systole (Atrial Contraction)
203
What happens to ventricular pressure during Isovolumic Contraction?
Ventricular Pressure Rises Rapidly and AV valves close
204
What happens to ventricular Volume during Isovolumic Contraction?
There is not a change in volume (no emptying occurs
205
Are the valves open or closed during isovolumic contraction?
All 4 are CLOSED
206
What do you hear during isovolumic contraction?
The S1 sound (Lubb)
207
What makes the S1 sound?
AV valves snapping shut
208
What happens to left ventricular pressure during Ventricular Ejection in Phase 1 (Systole)?
When left ventricular pressure rises slightly above 80 mmhg the semilunar valves open and blood is ejected
209
What happens to right ventricular pressure during Ventricular Ejection?
Right ventricular pressure is less than pulmonary trunk
210
When does the T wave occur during the cardiac cycle?
During the Ventricular Ejection phase right before
211
What happens to right ventricular pressure during Ventricular Ejection in Phase 1 (Systole)?
When the right ventricular pressure rises slightly above 20 mmHG (book = 8 mmhg), the pulmonary semilunar valves open and blood is ejected.
212
During ventricular ejection, which volume can you measure?
End Systolic Volume (Volume of blood remaining in the ventricle after systole should be 50 ml)
213
What happens to aortic pressure during Ventricular Ejection in Phase 1 (Systole)?
Starts increasing during systole and aortic valve opens after that and then it begins to decrease
214
What happens to Atrial pressure during ventricular ejection?
c wave which is a slight backflow into the aorta
215
During the Isovolumic relaxion phase of diastole what happens to ventricular volume?
Does not change
216
During the Isovolumic relaxion phase of diastole, are any valves open?
No all are closed
217
When do we hear the S2 (Dupp) sound in the cardiac cycle?
During Isovolumic relaxation
218
What is the Dupp (S2) sound?
The semilunar valves closing
219
What causes the semilunar valves to close during isovolumic relaxation?
Pressure decrease in the ventricles and blood flow back into ventricles
220
During the Rapid Inflow phase of Diastole what happens to ventricular volume?
It increases
221
what is the verntricular pressure during the rapid inflow stage?
It is low
222
What happens during the rapid inflow stage of diastole?
1. AV-Valves open and ventricles fill rapidly
| 1. Blood flows from great vein to atria (80% of it)
223
What happens to atrial pressure during rapid inflow of ventricles?
A v wave occurs at the end of ventricular contraction (isovolumic relaxtion phase) and atrial pressure does not change
224
What happens to aortic pressure during the rapid inflow stage of diastole?
After aortic valve closes an incirsura occurs because back flow stops suddenly toward the left ventricle
225
During diastole, what is happening to aortic pressure?
It decreases slowly due to elasticity of the aorta plus blood fllow to periphery
226
What wave occurs during diastasis?
P Wave
227
What happens during diastasis?
A small amount of blood passively flows into the ventricles
228
What occurson the ECG? during atrial systole
QRS complex
229
What happens to ventricular volume during atrial systole?
It increases by 20%
| 120 mL at end of diastole
230
What happens to ventricular pressure during atrial systole?
It increases slightly
231
what happens to atrial pressure during atrial systole?
1. Atria contract causing a wave
2. Ventricles fill by 20%
3. Atria function as a primer pump and ventricles are 20% more effective
232
What happens to Aortic Pressure during atrial systole?
Decreases slightly
