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BMS 538 > Exam 4a > Flashcards

Exam 4a Flashcards

1
Q

What do the mucus neck cells and surface mucuous cells absorb?

A

Water, ions, short chain FA and some drugs

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2
Q

What is Alveolar Volume? (Va)

A

Volume of air involved with gas exchange

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3
Q

What is Deglutition?

A

Process of Swallowing

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4
Q

What enzymes are secreted by the pancreas?

A

trypsin,
chymotrypsin, pancreatic amylase, lipase,
nucleases

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5
Q

What do mucous cells secrete?

A

Secrete protective mucus

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6
Q

Describe teniae coli

A

Portions of the longitudinal muscle in the muscularis externa layerof the large intestine is thickened to form three bands

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7
Q

What is the reverse chloride shift? Why is this important?

A

1

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8
Q

Define hypoxia.

A

Oxygen Deficiency

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9
Q

What does diffusing capacity help explain?

A

Explains how easily a gas can diffuse during external and internal respiration

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10
Q

what are microvilli of the small intestine?

A

Numerous projections of the plasma membrane of absorptive mucosal cells. Provides further increase in surface area for absorption; digestive enzymes (brushborder enzymes) for some proteins and carbohydrates are housed here.

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11
Q

Describe the pancreas

A

pale pink lobulated gland located in the C-shaped region of the duodenum.

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12
Q

What are villi of the small intestine?

A

Finger-like projections of the mucosa

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13
Q

Describe the 3 major mechanisms that regulate blood pH.

A
  1. Buffer systems
  2. Exhalation of CO2
    Respiratory system
  3. Kidney excretion of H+
    Urinary system
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14
Q

What is the respiratory membrane.

A

“Sheet” of blood covers the alveoli and membranes of all the terminal portions of the lungs

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15
Q

Describe the Sol Layer (Pericilliary liquid layer (PCL)) of the mucociliary transport system

A

The lubricant enables the gel mucus present at the tips of the cilia to be transported by the cilia

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16
Q

What is the function of the Submucosal Plexus?

A

Controlling secretions

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17
Q

List the four factors that result in a difference between the composition of alveolar air and atmospheric air.

A
  1. FRC (Functional Residual Capacity) gas is only partially replaced with atmospheric air with each breath
  2. Oxygen is constantly being absorbed into pulmonary blood
  3. Carbon dioxide is constantly diffusing from pulmonary blood
  4. Atmospheric air is humidified before reaching the alveoli
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18
Q

What is the pulmonary edema safety factor?

A

Left atrial pressure must reach >22.5 mmHg for the rate of pulmonary edema formation to increase linearly with left atrial pressure.

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19
Q

What does parasympathetic stimulation increase in the GI tract?

A

increases secretion and motility by stimulating ENS

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20
Q

The Pons contains the _______________ and ______________.

A

Pneumotaxic area and the Apneustic area

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21
Q

Describe the submucosa layer of the GI tract

A

underlying connective tissue contains numerous blood vessels and nerves

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22
Q

What is SpO2?

A

1

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23
Q

Define partial pressure.

A

Each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own pressure as if all other gases were not present

The pressure of each gas alone is called the Partial Pressure

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24
Q

Why are small bronchioles clinically important as a site of resistance?

A
  • No cartilage
  • Abundant smooth muscle
  • Contraction will reduce lumen radius
  • Small lumen
  • Edema and mucus will cause occlusion
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25
Q

What is the structural adaptation of the mucosal wall of the large intestine?

A

No Villi
Goblet cells
Teniae coli

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26
Q

Why does the sneeze reflex occur?

A

Nasal irritation

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27
Q

Describe the serosal layer of the GI tract

A

connective tissue; outermost covering.

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28
Q

When does hemoglobin have the greatest affinity for oxygen?

A

when 3 of the 4 polypeptide chains are bound to oxygen.

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29
Q

What is the state of perfusion in zone 1?

A

absent

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30
Q

What does the large intestine absorb?

A

Remaining salt and water

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31
Q

What is the result of mucus secretion from the mucus neck cells and surface mucuous cells?

A

Forms a protective barrier that prevents digestion of the stomach wall

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32
Q

When does the rhythum of peristaltic contraction intensify?

A

as they reach the pylorus which facilitatate passage into the duodenum through the pyloric sphinctor (gastric emptying)

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33
Q

What are some causes of hypoventilation?

A
  1. Damage to the CNS
  2. Peripheral nerve injury
  3. Damage to pump (muscle paralysis,chest trauma)
  4. Lung resiting inflation (decreased lung compliance, airway obstruction)
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34
Q

when is the migrating motility complex activated?

A

During fasting and when most of the food has been absorped

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35
Q

What cause increased blood volume in the lungs?

A
  1. heart failure

2. Mitral valve regurgitation

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36
Q

T/F The Bronchioles are innervated by the sympathetic nervous system

A

False but the B2 receptors will dialate in response to circulating epinephrine and norepineephrine

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37
Q

What is the cause of brown feces?

A

rusty iron from hemoglobin

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38
Q

What are the extrinsic Glands conected to the oral cavity?

A

Parotid
Submandibular
Sublingual

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39
Q

What are the functions of Pneumotaxic area

A

Helps coordinate the transition between inspiration and expiration

Transmits inhibitory impulses to the inspiratory area

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40
Q

Why is the partial pressure of oxygen in venous blood decreased from normal during exercise?

A

Between 20 and 40 mm Hg, large amounts of O2 are released into the tissues
Contracting skeletal muscle

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41
Q

What does the sublingual gland secrete?

A

Mucus

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42
Q

List the accessory organs and their functions.

A

1

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43
Q

What is pulmonary artery vasoconstriction?

A

Reflex contraction of vascular smooth muscle in the pulmonary circulation in response to low regional partial pressure of oxygen (PO2)
<70% of normal

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44
Q

What does coorpoerative binding mean in terms of hemoglobin?

A

hemoglobin has a greater ability to bind oxygen after a subunit has already bound oxygen. 

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45
Q

How fast do the cilia in the epithelial cells beat?

A

10-20 x per minute

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46
Q

What is the extrinsic set of nerves in the GI tract?

A

The Autonomic Nervous System

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47
Q

What happens during an allergic asthmea attack?

A

Local reflex stimulation due to dust, noxious gas, cigarette smoke, inflammation

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48
Q

Air is a mixture of gases. True or False?

A

True

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49
Q

What Lungs zones are present in the normal human when standing?

A

2 and 3

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50
Q

Define cyanosis.

A

Bluish or red-purple color in the mucous membranes or skin

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51
Q

What is the muscularis layer made up of in the GI tract?

A

Inner circular layer and outer longitudal layer

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52
Q

What happen to PO2 in the pulmonary capillaries in external respiration.

A

Increases

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53
Q

What makes up the ENS?

A

Myenteric Plexus and the Submucosal Plexus

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54
Q

Describe the blood flow in zone 2

A

Intermittant

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55
Q

Name the subdivisons of the stomach

A

Cardia
Fundus
Body
Pyloric Antrum

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56
Q

How much higher is hyperbaric chamber pressure raised?

A

Hyperbaric chamber pressure raised to 3 to 4 atmospheres so that tissues absorb more O2

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57
Q

What happens is duodenum is overfilled?

A

Gastric motility is inhibited and chyme is transported slower into the duodenum

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58
Q

What can cause alveolar pathology?

A

Emphysema

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59
Q

What is hyperbaric oxygenation?

A

Use of INCREASED Pressure to dissolve more O2 in the blood

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60
Q

What is external respiration?

A

-Pulmonary Gas Exchange
-Exchange of gases between alveoli and pulmonary capillaries
Pulmonary capillaries

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61
Q

Describe the muscularis layer of the GI tract

A

has two layers of smooth muscle that produces wave-like contractions (peristalsis) to propel food along the GI tract.

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62
Q

What is Vital Capacity? (VC)

A

Tidal Volume (Vt) + Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) + Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)

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63
Q

How does the sneeze reflex occur?

A

Afferent impulses via trigeminal n. (V) to medulla oblongata

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64
Q

The diffusing capacity for CO2 is ____greater than O2

A

20 times

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65
Q

What is the percentage of O2 in room air?

A

21%

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66
Q

What is the Direction of O2 and CO2 diffusion?

A

Oxygen is going into the RBC and CO2 is going out

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67
Q

What do paneth cells secrete?

A

Lysozyme

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68
Q

Describe the 2nd stage -Pharyngeal stage of Deglutition

A

involuntary movement of bolus through the pharynx into the esophagus (esophageal sphincter relaxes before movement into esophagus)

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69
Q

what gas is the most soluble in the blood?

A

Oxygen?

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70
Q

How do the lungs serve as a blood reservoir?

A

The lungs serve as a blood reservoir- ½ normal to 2X normal blood volume
Range 225-900 ml

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71
Q

What are brushborder enzymes?

A

Digestive enzymes that participate in protein and carbohydrate digestion

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72
Q

What is Physiological Dead Space Volume?

A

Gas in respiratory tract not involved with gas exchange

Vd

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73
Q

What is pleural fluid?

A

Small volume of fluid between the visceral and parietal layers of the pleura (pleural cavity)

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74
Q

What is the enterogastric reflex?

A
  1. Decreases gastric motility

2. Slows the rate of gastric emptying

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75
Q

What does the secretion of pepsinogen do?

A

Become activated in the form of pepsin which breaks down proteins into peptides

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76
Q

Where is the Sublingual Gland?

A

Medial to the mandible;

underside of the tongue;

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77
Q

Where does major digestion occur in humans?

A

Duodenum of the small intestine

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78
Q

What are some causes of hypoxic hypoxia?

A

high altitude, airway obstruction, or pulmonary edema

Anemic hypoxia

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79
Q

Where are the contractions more in the small intestine?

A

Duodenum

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80
Q

Describe the two circulation patterns of the lungs.

A
  1. High pressure, Decreased blood flow

2. Low pressure, Increased blood flow circulation

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81
Q

what do the bacteria of the large intestine produce?

A

B complex and vitamin K

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82
Q

What do G Cells Secrete?

A

Secrete the hormone gastrin

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83
Q

Define dyspnea.

A

1

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84
Q

What do Chief cells secrete and what is the result?

A

Secrete pepsinogen and gastric lipase

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85
Q

What is chyme?

A

mixture of partially digested food and gastric juice is termed

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86
Q

What is the state of perfusion in zone 2?

A

sporatic

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87
Q

What is the activity of the pyloric sphincter?

A

Opens to permit passage of chyme into the duodenum

Functions as a valve to prevent backflow and control of how much chyme enters the duodenum

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88
Q

When PO2 increases, SpO2 (% Saturation of Hb) decreases or increases?

A

Increases

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89
Q

What is the mechanism behind Deglutition?

A

Muscular contractions of oropharynx and laryngopharynx moves food into the esophagus and ultimately into the stomach

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90
Q

Describe the exchange of O2 and CO2 in the pulmonary capillaries (external respiration).

A

1

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91
Q

How do you calculate the rate of edema formation?

A

eduma fluid per hr./dry weight of lung

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92
Q

What is Inspiratory Capacity?

A

Tidal Volume (Vt) + Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)

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93
Q

What is the basic electrical rhythum of the GI smooth muscle?

A

slow waves that occur at regular intervals at a relatively constant frequency

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94
Q

Which factors affect O2’s affinity for Hb?

A
  1. pH
  2. PCO2
  3. Temperature
  4. . 2,3 Biphosphoglycerate (BPG ) Effect
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95
Q

Where is the myenteric plexus located?

A

Between the circular and longitudal muscle layers of the muscularis externa (allows for maximum contractrability)

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96
Q

Where are each of the zones in the lung

A

Zone 3-bottom
Zone 2-middle
Zone 1-bottom

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97
Q

Does PAO2 and PACO2 increase, decrease during hyperventilation?

A

PaO2 decreases and

PaCO2 increases

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98
Q

What is the function of Migrating Motility Complex?

A

Housekeeping Function to expel any undigested material into the large intestine to limit bacterial colonization

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99
Q

What connects the myenteric plexus to the submucosal plexus and the myenteric plexus to the motor neuron that connect to the muscularis?

A

An interneuron

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100
Q

What is the intrinsic set of nerves in the GI tract?

A

The enteric nervous system

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101
Q

What are the functions of the mucous membranes that cover the conchae?

A
  • Warms the inspired air
  • Humidifies the inspired air
  • Filters the inspired air
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102
Q

what is mass movement in the large intestine?

A

similar to peristaltic wave but occurs 3-4 times a day

-propels luminal content toward recturm

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103
Q

Describe the blood flow in zone 1

A

No blood flow during allportions of the cardic cycle

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104
Q

What is excercised induced pulmonary hemorrhage?

A

Some horses placed on Lasix to decrease blood volume/pressure, especially pulmonary pressure

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105
Q

What is receptive relaxation response?

A

Entry of food into the stomach cause the relaxation of the fundus and upper portion of the body in order to accomodate the food with very little pressure

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106
Q

Medulla oblongata contains the ______________.

A

Medullary rhythmicity area with insptory and expiratory areas

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107
Q

what is the function of the cilia/epithelial cell?

A

Power stroke towards the pharynx

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108
Q

Is resistance normally high or low?

A

Low (<1cm H20 gradient from alveoli to atm

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109
Q

What are the functions of the Apneustic area?

A

Sends impulses to the inspiratory area that activate it and prolong inspiration, inhibiting expiration.

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110
Q

What does the lacteal in the intestinal villus do?

A

Absorb fat

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111
Q

Why is churning in the stomach important?

A

Mixes food with gastric juice-allows food to break down

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112
Q

What are the four capacities of the lungs?

A 
Inspiratory Capacity (IC)
Vital Capacity(VC)
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)
Total Lung Capacity 
(TLC)
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113
Q

when there is pathology in the alveoli what is compromised?

A

Gas Exchange, there is more dead space

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114
Q

What cells are found in the small intestine?

A

Paneth

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115
Q

pH = 7.10PCO2= 60 mm HgHCO3- = 40 mEQ/L

What is the primary problem and Compensatory Response?

A

1

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
116
Q

What happen to PCO2 in the pulmonary capillaries in external respiration.

A

Decrease

117
Q

Where does oxygen diffuse from into the blood?

A

alveoli

118
Q

The slow waves in the GI smooth muscle work by what?

A

Slow
Spontaneously
graded depolarization

119
Q

What do goblet cells in the large intestine produce?

A

alkaline mucus which lubricates and facilitates the passage of feces

120
Q

List the different layers of the GI tract.

A
  1. Mucosa
  2. Submucosa
  3. Muscularis
  4. Serosa
121
Q

What is the result of mixing waves provided by the muscularis layer of the stomach?

A

Macerate food and mix it with gastric juice forming chyme.

122
Q

What are the structures of the respiratory zone?

A

Respiratory Bronchioles

Alveolar Ducts

123
Q

What happen to PO2 in external respiration.

A

Increases

124
Q

What happens in the systemic capillaries during internal respiration?

A

Decrease in PO2

Increase in PCO2

125
Q

How does the cough reflex occur?

A

Afferent impulses from vagus n. (X) to medulla oblongata

126
Q

What is the function of peristalsis in the stomach and what produces it?

A

The muscularis of the stomach

It functions to force chyme through the pyloric sphncter

127
Q

How are large (>6um) unwanted particles in the respiratory system trapped-

A

Sneezed, coughed, and/or swallowed

128
Q

What is the unique nature of the large intestine?

A

mass movement-A portion stays contracted for a longer duration before relaxing

129
Q

what is a unique characteristic of smooth muscle?

A

Gap junctions-allows muscle to contract as one sheet and enables the transmission of electrical signals between the muscle cells

130
Q

Describe the three influences on the respiratory center that regulate ventilation.

A
  1. Cortical influences
  2. Chemoreceptor Regulation of respiration
  3. Proprioceptor Stimulation of Respiration
131
Q

What is Functional Residual Capacity?

A

FRC = ERV + RV

132
Q

Where does gas exchange occur?

A

At the level of the alveoli

133
Q

Which structures reabsorb excess fluid in pulmoary edema?

A

Venous side of capillaries and lymphatic capillaries

134
Q

What does the external anal sphincter consist of?

A

Outer ring of skeletal muscle

135
Q

What are the surface modifications of the small intestine for absorption?

A
  1. Circular Folds (plicae circulares)
  2. Villi
  3. Microvilli
136
Q

What are the three steps of respiration.

A
  1. Ventilation (Breathing) (inhal and exhale)
  2. External (Pulmonary) respiration
  3. Internal (Tissue) respiration
137
Q

Describe Low pressure, Increased blood flow circulation

A

Pulmonary artery (PA)- systemic venous blood (decreased oxygen concentration) to lungs

 Short– extends only 5 cm beyond apex of right ventricle, Thin wall thickness (1/3 the aorta) Large diameter
Large compliance (e.g. 7 ml/mmHg)

Allows pulmonary artery to accommodate the stroke volume from the right ventricle

Efficient gas exchange between pulmonary capillaries and alveoli

138
Q

Why does the cough reflex occur?

A

Airway irritation

139
Q

What is the function of the pyloric sphinctor?

A

Controls the amount of chyme going into the duodenum

140
Q

What are the functions of the large intestine?

A
  • Bacteria in the large intestine produce B complex and vit.K.
  • Absorption of the remaining salt and water.
  • Storage and concentration of undigested food
  • Defecation-emptying of the rectum
141
Q

T/F The bronchiloles are innervated by the parasympathetic nervous system

A

True-acetylcholine causes constriction

There is also a Local reflex stimulation due to dust, noxious gas, cigarette smoke, inflammation

142
Q

How are medium (1-5um) unwanted particles in the respiratory system trapped-

A

Deposited in small bronchiole- Mucociliary transport system

143
Q

List the components of the respiratory membrane.

A
  1. Fluid lining
  2. Alveolar epithelium
  3. Basement membrane
  4. Interstitial space
  5. Basement membrane
  6. Capillary endothelium
144
Q

What is the Heme portion of hemoglobin made of?

A

The heme portion contains 4 atoms of iron, each capable of combining with a molecule of oxygen

145
Q

Can you smell CO?

A

no

146
Q

Disease produces ______before _______

A

Disease produces hypoxia before hypercapnia

147
Q

Describe the exchange of O2 and CO2in the systemic capillaries (internal respiration).

A

1

148
Q

Use capillary dynamics to describe how left heart failure causes pulmonary edema.

A
  1. Left sided heart failure
  2. Blood backs up into the pulmonary veins
  3. Blood Backs up in the pulmonary capillaries
    = increase in pulmonary blood volume (pulmonary congestion)
  4. Increased pulmonary hydrostatic capillary pressures and increased pulmonary capillary fluid filtration into the lungs
149
Q

What is the purpose of the enterogastric reflex?

A
  • allows time for the small intestine to –digest and absorp foodstuff
  • regulate the rate at which chyme leaves the stomach
150
Q

What secretes digestive enzymes and bicarb into the duodenum?

A

The acini and associated ducts of the pancreas

151
Q

What does the secretion of gastric lipase do?

A

Splits triglycerides into fatty acids and monoglycerides

152
Q

What is the function of HCl in the GI tract?

A

Kills microbes in food
Denatures proteins
Converts pepsinogen to pepsin

153
Q

What is air made of?

A 
Nitrogen = 78%
Oxygen = 21% FO2 = 0.21
Argon = 0.93%
Carbon Dioxide = .04%
Other Gases = Neon, Helium, Methane, Krypton, Hydrogen, Water Vapor = .03%
154
Q

What does this value tell you on the pulse oximeter?

A

will tell you there is a problem before you can visualize it with mucous membrane color and capillary refill time- CRT

155
Q

What is Minute Respiratory Volume?

A

Total amount of new air moved into the respiratory passages each minute
in L/Min or ml/min
MRV = VT (ml) x respiratory rate (RR = breaths per min)

156
Q

List functions of the liver

A
  1. Lipid and protein metabolism
  2. Glycogenesis
  3. Detoxification
  4. Synthesis of bile salts
  5. Damaged red blood cell removal-bilirubin excretion
157
Q

What is the function of the Myenteric Plexus?

A

GI tract Motility

158
Q

Is there gas exchange in the dead space?

A

No

159
Q

What is the unique structural adaptation of the mucosal wall of the stomach

A
  • It has a a mucosal barrier
  • bicarbonate rich mucus (protection)
  • epithelial cells joined by tight junctions (prevents seepage of gastric juice)
  • gastric juices only released when food is present (corrosive)
160
Q

What is the fractional concentration of O2 in room air.

A

0.21

161
Q

what is the function of the paneth cells?

A

bactericidal function thus regulating microbial population.

162
Q

Define pulmonary edema.

A

Excess fluid in the interstitium and alveoli

163
Q

What does parasympathetic activity promote in GI smooth muscle?

A

Increased contractability

164
Q

What is the function of the enzymes in the pancreas?

A

Digest proteins into smaller polypeptides; polysaccharides into shorter sugars;
and fats into free fatty acids &monoglycerides; nucleic acids into free mononucleotides

165
Q

Which anal sphincter is involuntary?

A

Internal

166
Q

List the causes of pleural effusion.

A

Blockage of the lymphatics
Heart failure
Reduced plasma colloid osmotic pressure
Infection/inflammation breaking down the capillary membranes

167
Q

On the Oscillation graph the more ______ = more _______

A

spikelets, force of contractions

168
Q

Activity of the muscularis

A

Mixing waves and peristalsis

169
Q

What are the parts of the anal sphincter?

A

Internal and external

170
Q

How can staying deep under water for too long while scuba diving be a problem?

A

Explains why you can breathe compressed air while scuba diving despite 79% Nitrogen

  • N2 has very low solubility unlike CO2 (soda cans)
  • Dive deep and increased pressure forces more N2 to dissolve in the blood (nitrogen narcosis- altered state of awareness)
  • Decompression sickness if come back to surface too fast or stay deep too long- nitrogen bubbles in blood and tissues
171
Q

What is Hyperbaric Oxygenation used for?

A

Treatment of:
Patients with -
1. anaerobic bacterial infections (tetanus and gangrene)
-Anaerobic bacteria die in the presence of O2
2. Cardiac pathology, CO poisoning, cerebral edema, bone infections, gas embolisms and crush injuries

172
Q

List the five variables that impact the rate of diffusion through the respiratory membrane- what gas is the most soluble in the blood?

A
  1. ∆P – Partial pressure difference
  2. A – Cross-sectional area of surface
  3. S – Solubility of gas in the fluid
  4. X – Distance of diffusion path
  5. MW- Molecular weight of gas
           ∆P * A * S D =   --------------
      X * √MW
173
Q

What does the Parotid Gland Secrete?

A

Watery secretion

174
Q

Is the rate at which alveolar air is renewed by atmospheric air (slow or fast)? Why is this important?

A

Slow

  1. Prevents sudden changes in gas concentrations in the blood
  2. Makes respiratory control mechanism more stable – CNS monitors the arterial blood pH, PO2, and PCO2
  3. Prevents excessive changes in tissue oxygenation, carbon dioxide concentration, and tissue pH when respiration is temporarily interrupted
175
Q

Describe the blood flow in zone 3

A

Continous

176
Q

Define respiration.

A

Respiration is the exchange of gases between the atmosphere to alveoli, blood, and tissues/cells.

177
Q

What shape is the Oxygen hemoglobin disassociation curve and why?

A

The oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve has a sigmoid shape because of the cooperative binding of oxygen to the 4 polypeptide chains. 

178
Q

What are GI smooth muscle influenced by?

A

Neural activity and hormones

179
Q

What are smooth muscle cells subject to?

A

Regulation by the ANS and local environment

180
Q

What is the function of the intersticial cells of Cajal?

A
  • initiate the basic electrical rhythum

- sets the contractile rhythum

181
Q

Define affinity.

A

how tightly O2 binds to hemoglobin

182
Q

Define Peristalsis

A

Peristalsis progression of coordinated contractions and relaxations of the esophageal muscle pushes the food down to the stomach

183
Q

What size particles are exhaled?

A

< 0.5 µm

184
Q

What is Total Lung Capacity (TLC)

A 
TLC = IRV + VT + ERV + RV
TLC = VC + RV
185
Q

What is pleural effusion?

A

Excess Pleural Fluid– Large amount of free fluid in the pleural space

186
Q

List the three ways and percentages that carbon dioxide is transported in the blood.

A

70% HCO3- (Bicarbonate ions)
23% Hb-CO2 (Carbaminohemoglobin)
7% Dissolved CO2

187
Q

If pH = 7.25
PCO2= 30 mm HgHCO3- = 18 mEQ/L
What is the primary problem and Compensatory Response?

A

1

188
Q

List the causes of pleural effusion.

A

Blockage of the lymphatics
Heart failure
Reduced plasma colloid osmotic pressure
Infection/inflammation breaking down the capillary membranes

189
Q

Describe the 1st stage voluntary stage of Deglutition

A

bolus moved into oropharynx

190
Q

What does sympathetic stimulation do to the gI tract?

A

Sympathetic stimulation decreases secretions and activity by inhibiting ENS

191
Q

Which anal sphincter is voluntary?

A

External

192
Q

What causes decreased blood volume in the lungs?

A

Playing the trumpet- 250 ml can be expelled from pulmonary into systemic due to increase in pressure
Hemorrhage

193
Q

What does left shift indicate for O2’s affinity for Hb?

A

Increased affinity for O2 to bind to hemoglobin

194
Q

What connects the submucosal plexus to the mucosal epitheliumn?

A

A Motor Neuron

195
Q

smooth muscles can contract in ______

A

unison

196
Q

What do parietal cells secrete?

A

Secrete HCl and intrinsic factor(for vit. B12 absorption)

197
Q

What stimulates the gallbladder and what does that stimulate?

A

CCK stimulates the release of stored bile into the duodenum during digestion of a meal

198
Q

Describe the three ways by which pulmonary blood flow increases 4-7 X normal during exercise.

A
  1. Increase in pulmonary artery pressures
  2. Recruitment of closed capillaries which decreases resistance
    (Distending capillaries decreases resistance and increases flow)
  3. Zone 2 disappears – the entire lung becomes Zone 3 flow pattern
199
Q

Mechanical Digestion and _______ works hand in hand

A

perilastatic motion

200
Q

What are the steps of the enterogastric reflex?

A
  1. Duodenum fills with chyme
  2. Sensory stretch receptors are stimulated
  3. Sensory nerve impoulses travel to CNS
  4. Nerve impulses inhibit peristalsis in stomach wall
201
Q

What is the normal circulation pattern?

A

Low pressure, Increased blood flow circulation

202
Q

Which structures reabsorb excess pleural fluid?

A

Venous side of capillaries and lymphatic capillaries

203
Q

What are the accessory organs of the GI tract?

A

Pancreas
Liver
Gallbladder

204
Q

What is the most important factor that determines how much oxygen combines with hemoglobin?

A

PO2
The greater the PO2, the more oxygen will combine with hemoglobin, until the available hemoglobin molecules are saturated

205
Q
  1. pH = 7.70PCO2= 60 mm HgHCO3- = 50 mEQ/LWhat is the primary problem and Compensatory Response?
A

1

206
Q

Where does major absorption and digestion occur?

A

Duodenum

207
Q

Can hb act as a buffer for H+?

A

Yes, H+ binding alters Hb structure  decreasing oxygen carrying capacity

208
Q

What is the internal anal sphincter consist of?

A

Inner ring of smooth muscle

209
Q

Describe the Bohr effect.

A
  • An increase in H+ in blood causes O2 to unload from hb

- The binding of O2 to Hb causes unloading of H+ from Hb

210
Q

Describe the blood volume of the lungs

A

450 ml total- 9% of total blood volume (TBV)
70 ml is present in the pulmonary capillaries
380 ml is divided equally among pulmonary arteries and veins

211
Q

What causes damage to capillary membranes?

A

infections or breathing toxic gas (e.g. chlorine)

212
Q

Describe the structure of the conchae.

A

Conchae or turbinate bones project into the nasal cavity to form ridges that increase the internal surface area and separate the cavity into parallel air passages

213
Q

Respiratory gases diffuse from areas of _____ partial pressure to areas of _____partial pressure

A

Respiratory gases diffuse from areas of high partial pressure to areas of low partial pressure

214
Q

What is hypoxic hypoxia?

A

Caused by a low PaO2 —> hypoventilation,

Hypoventilation due to airway obstruction or pulmonary edema  Low PaO2

215
Q

When are expiratory neurons activated?

A

Expiratory neurons inactive during most quiet breathing only active during high ventilation rates
(3 seconds)

216
Q

Smooth muscle have a ____ _______Structure

A

Diamond Shaped

217
Q

pH = 7.60
PCO2= 20 mm HgHCO3- = 15 mEQ/L
What is the primary problem and Compensatory Response?

A

1

218
Q

What is Alveolar PO2?

A

Balance between: oxygen absorbed by blood and new oxygen breathed in

219
Q

What does the endocrine portion of the pancreas have?

A

pancreatic islets-

220
Q

What are the structures of the conducting zone?

A

Trachea
Bronchi
Nonrespiratory Bronchioles

221
Q
  1. In 100 ml of oxygenated blood, how is O2 transported?
A
  1. 5% of the O2 is dissolved in the plasma

98. 5% is carried with hemoglobin (Hb) inside red blood cells as oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)

222
Q

What is the function of motility in the GI tract?

A
  • Allows bidirectional propulsion of chyme (results in increased contact time of digestive products with gastric mucosa)
  • causes chyme to move along the length of small intestine
223
Q

How is the partial pressure of a gas calculated (equation)?

A

Calculated by Multiplying its Fractional Concentration by the Total Pressure Exerted by All Gases.
Px = Fx X Pt

Px = Partial pressure of gas
Fx = percentage of gas in room air (also called fractional concentration of gas) 
Pt = atmospheric pressure (total pressure)
224
Q

What are the anatomical components that contribute to dead space?

A 
Nose 
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
225
Q

What is Alveolar Ventilation?

A

Total volume of new air entering the alveoli and adjacent gas exchange areas each minute
VA = VA X RR

226
Q

What is produced by the pancreatic islets in the endocrine portion of the pancreas?

A

insulin and glucagon;

227
Q

What are the plicae circulares?

A

Permanent transverse ridges of mucosa

228
Q

When PaO2 is Hb almost fully saturated?

A

60 mmhg

229
Q

What is the state of perfusion in zone 3?

A

constant

230
Q

Define Lung Capacity

A

Two or More Lung Volumes

231
Q

What gas has the highest percentage in room air?

A

Nitrogen

232
Q

What does pulmary edema do in terms of diffusion?

A

Increases diffusion distance

233
Q

Describe the structure/function of the mucus gel blanket

A

Goblet cells and submucosal glands
Nose to respiratory bronchioles
Moistens epithelial cells and traps particles

234
Q

How are small (< 1um) unwanted particles in the respiratory system trapped-

A

Stick on alveolar wall- Alveolar Macrophages

235
Q

Describe the High pressure, Decreased blood flow circulation?

A

Branches of thoracic aorta supplies systemic arterial blood (normal oxygen concentration) to:

  1. Trachea, large/small bronchi, supporting tissues of the lungs- connective tissue and septa
  2. Bronchial arteries supply most of this arterial blood
236
Q

Where is the respiratory center in the brain?

A

Brainstem

237
Q

How is CO poisoning treated?

A

Treat by administering 100% O2

238
Q

What part of the pancreas is the acini and associated ducts located?

A

exocrine portion

239
Q

Describe the neural innervations of the GI tract

A
  1. Enteric Nervous System (“Brain of the Gut”)

2. Autonomic Nervous System

240
Q

What is the function of pleural fluid?

A

Provides lubrication and reduces friction during breathing

241
Q

Describe the esophageal stage (3rd) of Deglutition

A

Involuntary passage of food through the esophagus via peristaltic waves into the stomach

242
Q

Why Does pulmonary artery vasoconstriction occur?

A

This vasoconstriction by the pulmonary vasculature represents its fundamental difference from the systemic circulation, which typically vasodilates in response to hypoxia

5X increase in vascular resistance  reduces blood flow through areas of lung where PO2 is low. Blood is distributed where needed in different regions of the lungs

243
Q

What happens when the bronchioles are stimulated by something irritating such as dust?

A

Mast cells degranulate an an allergic reaction happens

244
Q

What are the functions of the Medullary rhythmicity area?

A

Control the basic rhythm of respiration

245
Q

What does the Submandibular Gland Secrete?

A

Mixed Serous and Mucus

246
Q

What does intrinsic factor do in the GI tract?

A

Needed for the absorbtion of vitamin B12 which is used in RBC formation

247
Q

What is hemoglobin?

A

Hemoglobin consists of a protein portion called globin and a pigment called heme.

248
Q

What are haustra and what causes them?

A

Tonic contractions causes the teniae coli to form pocket-like pouches in the wall of the colon called haustra.

249
Q

Describe the mucosa layer of the GI tract

A

epithelium that lines the lumen of the GI tract

250
Q

What regulates gastric emptying?

A

Hormonal/neuronal reflexes

251
Q

Where is the parotid gland?

A

Parotid-between the base of the ear and mandibular gland

252
Q

What is the mechanism of a cough?

A

Response – large inspiration, closed glottis, abdominal wall muscle contractions, sudden opening of glottis, massive rush of air out of the lungs (100 mph)

253
Q

Where is the least amount of resistance to airflow encountered?

A

Least resistance is in the smaller lower airways

due to the increased number of branches that increases total cross sectional area

254
Q

What are the functions of the salivary glands?

A

Lubrication and thermoregulation -(Dogs)

salivary amylase-starch breakdown

255
Q

What are the pacemaker cells of the GI smooth muscle?

A

Intersticial Cells of Cajal

256
Q

What is stomach emptying inhibited by?

A

enterogastric reflex
enterogastrones
fat in the duodenum

257
Q

Where is smooth muscle found?

A

In Organs that are automatic in function

258
Q

How are expiratory neurons activated?

A

1

259
Q

What do goblet cells secrete?

A

Mucus

260
Q

What are the timed volumes in the respiratory system?

A

Minute Respiratory Volume and Alveolar Ventilation

261
Q

Where is most of the resistance to airflow encountered?

A

Most resistance is in the larger upper airways (trachea and bronchi)

262
Q

What is the unique structural component of the Anus?

A

Anal sphincter that regulates the passage of feces outside the body

263
Q

How long does it take the chyme to reach the large intestine?

A

2 hrs

264
Q

What is the end of the digestive tract?

A

Anal Canal

265
Q

What are the stages of Deglutition?

A
  1. Voluntary
  2. Pharyngeal
  3. Esophageal
266
Q

What does the duodenum receive?

A

pancreatic secretions and bile from the liver or gall bladder

267
Q

Where does chyme exit the stomach?

A

pyloric sphincter (Gatekeeper) into the small intestine

268
Q

Respiratory gases _________from areas of _________ partial pressure to areas of _________ partial pressure.

A

Respiratory gases diffuse from areas of high partial pressure to areas of low partial pressure

269
Q

The higher the partial pressure of a gas, the higher or lower gas concentration?

A

It is Directly proportional so if the concentration increases so does the partial pressure

270
Q

the slow waves in the GI smooth muscle must do what to reach an action potential?

A

reach a threshhold

271
Q

Partial Pressure of a Gas in solution is determined not only by its ___________, but also its _______________.

A

Partial Pressure of a Gas in solution is determined not only by its Concentration, but also its Solubility Coefficient.
Px = Cx / ßx

272
Q

What zone is present in a pathological lung?

A

1

273
Q

what is internal respiration?

A

-Systemic Tissue Gas Exchange

The Exchange of gases between systemic tissue capillaries and tissue/cells

274
Q

What is larger, a RBC or a Capillary?

A

RBC (7.5 Micrometers)

275
Q

What is FRC?

A

Functional Residual Capacity

FRC = The rate at which alveolar air is renewed by atmospheric air

276
Q

Where is the Submandibular Gland?

A

caudal to the angle of the jaw

277
Q

What happens when cows graze in high altitude?

A

Right heart failure

278
Q

What does membrane bound enteropeptidase kickstart?

A

Trypsinogen coversion to its active form trypsin

279
Q

What are segmental contractions?

A

churning

Ring like contrictions

280
Q

What connects the Myenteric Plexus to the Muscularis?

A

Motor neurons that control motility

281
Q

What comes together at the same time to activate protein digesting enzymes in the small intestine?

A

Enteric nervous system with local stimuli when food is available

282
Q

What does gastrin do in the GI tract after secretion from the G cells?

A

Stimulate the pareital cells to secrete HCl and chief cells to secrete pepsinogen

Contraction of the esophageal sphinctor occurs and motility of the stomach occurs. The pyloric sphingtor relaxes as well.

283
Q

What part of the stomach is adjacent to the body?

A

Fundus

284
Q

Name the secretory cells of the GI tract and list their secretions.

A

Parietal cells
Chief Cells
Mucous Cells
G Cells

285
Q

What does the liver consist of?

A 
Bile pigments (waste products)
Bile Salts (emulsification of fats)
286
Q

Explain why carbon monoxide poisoning decreases the oxygen content of blood.

A

CO binds to Hb heme group 250X more successfully than O2

287
Q

What type of fluid is pleural fluid?

A

Interstitial fluid that transudes from the pleural membranes

288
Q

What lung zones are normally present in a human in supine postion ?

A

3

BMS 538 (8 decks)

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