FINAL EXAM Flashcards
1
Q
hypothesis
A
a testable explanation that has not yet been proven true
2
Q
biology
A
the study of life
3
Q
variable
A
conditions or factors subject to change in an experiment
4
Q
dependent variable
A
variable that changes in response to the experiment
5
Q
independent variable
A
“Variable I change”. Variables we modify at the start of the experiment
6
Q
control group
A
receives no change (NO MANIPULATION) in any variable. this is used as a baseline to compare to the treatment group.
7
Q
treatment group
A
receives a change (MANIPULATION) in one variable, but all others remain the same
8
Q
scientific method steps
A
- observation
- question
- hypothesis
- prediction
- experiment
- conclusion
9
Q
8 characteristics of life
A
- assimilate energy
- respond to the environment
- maintain a relatively constant internal environment
- reproduce
- possess an inherited information base, encoded in DNA
- are composed of one or more cells
- are evolved from other living things
- are highly organized compared to inanimate objects
10
Q
hierarchy of life
A
Atom → Molecule → Organelle → Cell → Tissues → Organs → Organ systems → Organism → Population → Community → Ecosystem → Biomes → Biosphere
11
Q
atom
A
the smallest unit of an element that retains the element’s distinctive properties; the building blocks of all matter
12
Q
proton
A
a positively charged particle found in the nucleus of an atom
13
Q
neutron
A
an electrically neutral particle found in the nucleus of an atom
14
Q
electron
A
a negatively charged particle found in the nucleus of an atom
15
Q
atomic number
A
the number of protons in an atoms nucleus
16
Q
element
A
any substance that cannot be reduced to simpler substances through chemical means
17
Q
isotope
A
two or more forms of an element that have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons
18
Q
electronegativity
A
measure of an atom’s power to attract electrons. has to do with anything that has a charge intertwined with polarity.
19
Q
ionization
A
process where an atom/molecules’ charge becomes negative or positive by the gaining or loss of electrons; how ions are formed
20
Q
ion
A
an atom that has lost or gained electrons and therefore is either negatively or positively charged. number of electrons differs from number of protons
21
Q
solution
A
a homogenous mixture of two or more kinds of substances
22
Q
solute
A
the compound dissolved in solution (sugar in water)
23
Q
solvent
A
the compound doing the dissolving (water)
24
Q
acid
A
any substance that yields (loses) hydrogen ions in solution
25
base
any substance that accepts hydrogen ions in solution
26
polarity
The distribution of electrical charge over the atoms joined by the bond. Whether an element is neutral or not
27
hydrophobic
Literally, “water-fearing.” Excluded from water. Water cannot break down these compounds!!! (water and oil). These compounds are nonpolar and do not have a charge. When put into polar environments such as water, the nonpolar molecules stick and form a membrane, preventing water from surrounding the molecule.
28
hydrophilic
Literally, “water-loving.” Soluble in water. These compounds are polar and have a charge.
29
ionic bond
the chemical attraction between a negatively charged ion and a positively charged ion (medium)
30
covalent bond
the sharing of electrons between two atoms (strongest)
31
hydrogen bond
the weak electrical attraction between a hydrogen atom with a partial positive charge and a neighboring atom with a partial negative charge
32
zygote
a diploid fertilized egg
33
gamete
the haploid cells produced through meiosis. female gametes are eggs, male gametes are sperm
34
haploid
produced in meiosis, cells that contain a single set of chromosomes
35
diploid
produced in mitosis, cells that contain two sets of chromosomes
36
what are the four bases of DNA?
adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T), and cytosine (C)
37
four main types of large organic molecules
proteins
carbohydrates
nucleic acids
lipids
38
monomer
a small molecule that is repeating unit of polymer (building block of molecule)
39
polymer
a long strand of repeating units of small molecules called monomers
40
lipid
any major class of bio molecules built of fatty acids and insoluble water
41
lipoprotein
biological molecules that are combination of lipid and proteins
42
glycoprotein
combinations of carbohydrates and proteins
43
dehydration synthesis
the process of joining two molecules or compounds together, following the removal of water. monomers joining via covalent bonds to form polymers
44
hydrolysis
breaks polymers into monomers using a water molecule
45
what are carbohydrates made of
polymers of simple sugars
46
what are carbohydrates used for?
energy storage and structural support
47
Difference between Monosaccharides, disaccarides, polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides: simple sugar monomers disaccarides: two monomer sugars polysaccharides: created by long chains of monosaccarides
48
which two complex carbohydrates can we digest?
starch and glycogen
49
what is the organization of DNA?
DNA, Gene, Chromatid, Chromosome, Genome
50
genome
the complex set of genes of an organism
51
chromatin
DNA and protein
52
genotype
the genetic makeup of an organism
53
phenotype
any observable character (physiological features, bodily characteristics, or behaviors of an organism)
54
dominant
alleles that determine a phenotype, regardless of the presence of recessive of alleles
55
recessive
alleles that do not produce a noticeable effect of phenotype unless they are alone
56
incomplete dominant
when neither allele for a given gene is completely dominant, with the result that heterozygous genotypes can yield an intermediate phenotype (pink snapdragons)
57
codominant
where neither allele is recessive, both are fully expressed instead of blending together (type AB blood)
58
gene
the basic unit of information, consisting of a stretch of DNA, that codes for a distinct genetic characteristic
59
allele
each variable form of a gene
60
homozygous
two copies of the same allele (BB or bb) for a particular gene
61
heterozygous
two different alleles for a given phenotype (Bb)
62
carrier
don't suffer from these traits but can pass it down to offspring
63
x-linked inheritance
only located on X chromosome
64
autosomal inheritance
involved neither X or Y chromosome
65
non-disjunction
chromosomes not splitting during anaphase which leads to unequal dividing in chromosomes
66
what are three reasons cells divide?
1. cells die and need to be replaced
2. growth
3. reproduction
67
how many chromosomes do humans have?
46
68
species
members of a group that can mate with one another to produce fertile offspring
69
macroevolution
a product of microevolution; evolution on a larger scale
70
microevolution
a change of allele frequencies with a population over a relatively short period time
71
gene pool
the sum total of alleles in a population
72
mutation
any permanent alteration in an organism's DNA
73
gene flow
the movement of genes from one population to another
74
genetic drift
a change in allele frequencies produced by random differences in survival and reproduction among the individuals in a population
75
bottleneck effect
a form of genetic drift that occurs when a drop in the size of a population causes a loss of genetic variation (occurs by chance)
76
founder effect
a form of genetic drift that occurs when a small group of individuals establishes a new population isolated from its original, larger population
77
sexual selection
natural selection in which a trait increases an individual's chance of mating even if it decreases the individual's chance of survival
78
natural selection
the process by which individuals with advantageous characteristics for a particular environment survive and reproduce at a higher rate than individuals with less useful characteristics
79
common descent with modification
life descended from common ancestors located further down the evolutionary tree. Modification occurs as generations of life progress upwards along the tree.
80
evolutionary fitness
relative reproductive success of individuals in a given environment at a given time. One individual is said to be more fit than another to the extent that it has more offspring than another
81
what are the three modes of natural selection?
1. stabilizing selection
2. directional selection
3. disruptive selection
82
stabilizing selection
moves a character in population toward intermediate forms and hence tends to preserve the status quo (maintain average)
83
directional selection
moves a character toward one of its extreme forms (shift populations)
84
disruptive selection
moves a character toward two of its extreme forms (shifts populations into two populations)
85
speciation
the process by which one species splits to form two species or more
86
branching evolution
occurs when a single "parent" species diverges into two species, the parent species continuing while a second species arises from it
87
allopatric speciation
the formation of new species form from geographically isolated populations; don't mate because they're too far apart
88
sympatric speciation
the formation of new species in the absence of geographical isolation. they're in the same place but don't like each other so they don't mate
89
adaptive radiation
the expansion of a group of organisms to take on new ecological roles and to form new species and higher taxonomic groups. Rapid speciation as a result of a new environment or new niche. Works with natural selection because species have to adapt to a new environment, leading to new groups in different areas.
90
systematics
the biological discipline concerned with establishing degrees of relatedness among both living and extinct species
91
homologous structures
common structures in a different species that result from a shared ancestry
92
analogous structures
characteristics that appear similar, but were evolved separately, a recent common ancestor was not involved
93
convergent evolution
evolution that results in organisms that have different genetics but appear very much alike
94
what are the 6 intrinsic isolation mechanisms?
1. ecological isolation
2. temporal
3. behavioral
4. gametic
5. hybrid inviability
6. mechanical
95
ecological isolation
when populations overlap in range but still may not encounter each other if they use different habitats
96
temporal isolation
do not mate during the same time of the year, so gene flow is limited
97
behavioral isolation
even when population share the same habitat during the same time, they may still not breed if they are not attracted to each other
98
gametic isolation
even when they are able to mate, their gametes may be incompatible
99
hybrid inviability
species can mate, but their offspring are infertile or unable to survive/develop normally
100
mechanical isolation
even when they are attracted to each other they might not be able to mate successfully
101
Know the order of categories all life forms are placed in (Kingdom, Phylum, etc.)
King Phillip Came Over For Great Steak
| Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
102
virus
a small infectious agent that can replicate only inside a living cell
103
antibody
a protein that is produced by the immune system to help stop intruders from harming the body
104
prokaryote
organisms whose genetic material is not contained within a nucleus
105
extremophile
organisms that have evolved to survive in environments once thought to be entirely uninheritable
106
thermophile
a prokaryote, usually archaen that can live in extremely hot environments
107
halophile
a prokaryote, usually archaen that can live in extremely salty environments
108
anaerobe
organisms that can either do without oxygen or that are actually poisoned by it
109
algae
protists that get their nutrition by performing photosynethesis
110
phytoplankton
autotrophic components of the plankton community that produce most of the earth's oxygen and form the base of so many aquatic food chains
111
heterotrophic
a consumer, an organism that obtains energy by taking it from other sources
112
alternation of generations
one generation produces an entirely different generation
113
sporophyte
this generation produces spores
114
gametophyte
the generation that spores grow up to be; this generation produces gametes
115
endosperm
tissue inside of the angiosperm seeds, which functions as food for the growing embryo
116
radial symmetry
can cut it any way and it will still be symmetrical
117
bilateral symmetry
can cut it in half and it will still be symmetrical
118
coelem
central body cavity
119
hermaphrodite
have both male and female reproductive organs, some animals can change from male to female over their lifetime
120
ecology
study of interactions between organisms and their environment, where the environment of an organism includes both biotic factors (other living organisms) and abiotic (nonliving) factors.
121
population
a group of individuals of the same species living and interacting in a shared environment
122
community
the populations of different species that interact with one another in a particular place
123
ecosystem
a particular physical environment and all the communities in it
124
biosphere
all the world's living organisms and the physical spaces where they live
125
J-shaped growth curve
exponential growth, rapid growth
126
S-shaped growth curve
logistic growth, initially grows but later levels out
127
survivorship curve
how soon species members tend to die within the species lifespan
128
life table
how survivorship curves are created. they use data collected from a group to estimate the probabilities of an individual being alive after given intervals of time
129
What are the three classes of extremophiles
1. Thermophile- Extremely hot environments
2. Halophiles- Salty environments
3. Anaerobes- are without oxygen or that are poisoned by it
130
arithmetical growth
over given interval of time an unvarying number of new units is added to a population (j shaped growth)
131
exponential growth
when the number of new units added to a population is proportional to the number of units that exists (s shaped growth)
132
carrying capacity
maximum population density of a given species that can be sustained
133
R selected species
species tend to be physically small, experience their environment as relatively unstable and give little to no attention to the numerous offspring they produce
134
K selected species
physically large species, experience their environment as a relatively stable and lavish; a good deal of attention on relatively few species
135
Ecological dominant
The few species that are dominant in a given area
136
Keystone species
A species whose absence from a community would bring about significant change in that community
137
Detritivore
A class of consumer that feeds on the remains of dead organisms
138
Decomposer
A special kind of detritivore that break down dead material into its inorganic components, which can then be recycled through an ecosystem
139
Producer
An organism at the bottom of a food chain that uses energy from the sun to produce its own food
140
Consumer
An organism that obtains energy by eating all or parts of other organisms or their remains
141
Batesian mimicry
Occurs when one species evolves to resemble a different species that has superior to protective capability
142
Mullerian mimicry
Occurs when several species combine their protection against predators by resembling each other
143
Mutualism
A win-win relationship; both species benefit from their interaction
144
Commensalism
An interaction in which an individual from one species benefits while an individual from another species is neither harmed nor helped; win - “no one cares” relationship
145
Parasitism
A win-lose relationship, where one species feeds on parts of another but does not kill it immediately and may not kill it ever
146
Predation
One organism feeding on a second organism; a win-lose relationship
147
Competition
A species interaction in which both species may be harmed; lose-lose relationship
148
Biological legacy
Living things that survive a major ecological disturbance
149
porifera (sponges)
- no tissue
- no symmetry
- no organs
- eats by drawing water into pores with flagella
150
cnidaria (jellyfish)
- stinging cells (cnidocytes)
- tissue
- no organs
- radial symmetry
- two stages of life; Medusa and polyp
151
platyhelminthes (flat worms)
- bilateral symmetry
- organs
- no coelom
152
annelida (segmented worms)
- coelom
- bilateral symmetry
- ex; earthworms
- they grow back!
153
mollusca (squishy things)
- tissue
- mantel: creates shell
1. gastropods
2. bivalves
3. cephalopods
ex; snails and slugs
154
nematoda (roundworms)
- parasite
| - small
155
arthropoda (insects, spiders)
- repeating specialized segments
- have an exoskeleton made of chitin
1. uniramia (insects)
2. chelicerata (spiders)
3. crustacea (lobsters)
- 2 of 3 species are arthropoda
156
echinodermata (sea stars)
- radial symmetry
- feeds by everting stomach
- ex; starfish
157
chordata
- all have: notochord, nerve chord, tail, and pharyngeal slits
1. verterbrata
2. cephalochordata
3. urochordata
there are six classes of vertebrates:
1. chondrichthyes (cartilaginous) (sharks)
2. Osteichthyes (bony fish)
- ray or lobe finned
3. amphibia
4. reptilia (amniotic eggs) (ectotherms)
5. aves (birds)
6. mammalia (hair, mammary glands)
158
true multicellularity vs colonial multicellularity
true multicellularity: cells specialize in different roles.
| colonial multicellularity: cells specialize in different roles
159
nucleus
the control center of the cell, contains the cells DNA, coordinates cell's activities
160
organelle
Any of the membrane-enclosed subcellular compartments found in eukaryotic cells
161
cytosol
the jelly-like fluid in which organelles are immersed
162
cytoplasm
made up of the cytosol and insoluble suspended particles. Water and nutrients
163
cytoskeleton
The network of protein cylinders and filaments that form the framework of the cell (inside the cytoplasm)
164
plasma membrane
A barrier consisting of a phospholipid bilayer that separates a cell from its external environment. Flexible and active outer lining of a cell or of its compartments
165
endomembrane system
A group of membranes and organelles in eukaryotic cells that work together to modify, package, and transport proteins
166
transport vesicle
Vesicle that transports materials around the cell, most common path is from ER to the golgi apparatus
167
prokaryotic cells
Either bacteria or another life-form called archaea. Single-celled, anucleate. Have their DNA in a region called the nucleoid. Many bacteria contain an outer layer called a capsule
168
eukaryotic cells
Have their DNA contained in a membrane-line compartment, the nucleus. Either single-celled or multi-celled organisms.
169
ribsomes
Large macromolecules consisting of RNA and associated proteins. Their function is for protein synthesis
170
mitochondira
Organelles involved in the production of energy in the form of ATP
171
rough er
ribosomes located here
172
smooth er
Detoxifies substances, responsible for lipid synthesis, builds hormones
173
golgi apparatus/complex
Packages proteins and moves them
174
lysosomes
Responsible for molecule storage and breakdown (Recycles molecules no longer needed by the cell)
175
transport vesicle
Package up proteins made by ribosomes, then move across the cell
176
cytoskeleton
Provides structural support for animal cells, allows for cell movement, and transports substances throughout the cell’s interior
177
cell wall
A thick structural layer surrounding the plant cells
178
vacuole
Store and break down water and other molecules. Central Vacuole in the plant cell helps to maintain the cells rigidity
179
choloroplasts
Responsible for food and energy production. Carry out photosynthesis in plant cells
180
kinetic energy
energy in motion
181
potential energy
stored energy, has POTENTIAL of being released. Chemical energy is a special form of potential energy. Energy is held in chemical bonds, released in chemical reactions
182
laws of thermodynamics
1. Energy is never created or destroyed but is only transformed. “Conservation of Energy”
2. Energy transfer will always result in a greater amount of disorder in the universe.
-“Entropy” : measure of the amount of disorder in a
system; the greater the entropy, the greater the
disorder.
- In every energy transaction,(every step is not a
perfect transaction) some energy will be lost to
the most disordered form of energy, heat.
183
substrate
A molecule that will react to form a product.
184
coenzyme
Small organic molecules that are needed by certain enzymes for them to function
185
active site
The location within an enzyme where substrates are bound.
186
allosteric regulation
A molecule binds with the enzyme at a site other than its active site, changing its shape. Changes the enzyme; it will either become more or less active in its binding ability
187
competitve inhibition
A reduction in the activity of an enzyme by a compound binding with the enzyme in its active site. Turns off the enzyme so that it can’t grab onto anything
188
what are the four functions of proteins?
1. Structural support: Often bound to cytoskeleton.
2. Cell identification: By serving as external recognition proteins that interact with immune system cells.
3. Communication: By serving as external receptors for signaling molecules.
4. Transport: By providing channels for the movement of compounds into and out of the cell.
189
diffusion
The movement of a substance from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration
190
osmosis
The net movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration, how cells regulate their water content
191
hypertonic surroundings
If the concentration of a solution is higher inside a cell than it is outside of the cell. Has everything packed into it
192
hypotonic surroundings
If the concentration inside of the cell is lower than outside of the cell.
193
isotonic surroundings
If the concentration is the same on both sides
194
exocytosis
When vesicles transport materials outside of a cell
195
vesicles
Tiny sacs that are used to move larger substances in and out of cells, lined with membranes and can fuse or separate from other membranes
196
endocytosis
When materials are brought inside a cell
- Phagocytosis: “cellular eating”, particles larger than biomolecules are ingested (an entire bacterium or virus).
- Pinocytosis: “cellular drinking”, involves the capture of fluids.
- Receptor-mediated endocytosis
197
bacteriophage
"bacteria eaters" consist of DNA inside a protein coat. inject their DNA into bacterial cells
198
retrovirus
a type of RNA virus that inserts a copy of its genome into the DNA of the host cell that it invades, thus changing the genome of that cell
199
lysogenic cycle
the virus DNA hides in the bacteria's DNA. it remains there each time the bacteria divide
