Final Exam Flashcards
What does CRISPR stand for?
Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats
____________: enzymes that cut DNA at specific target sequences
Restriction enzymes
___________: enzymes that join DNA together
DNA ligase
____________: enzymes that synthesize DNA molecules from nucleotides and template strand
DNA polymerase
Example of DNA polmerase
Taq polymerase
__________: a small piece of DNA taken from a virus, plasmid, etc. that can be stably maintained in an organism and into which a foreign DNA fragment can be inserted for cloning purposes
Cloning vector
Why don’t restriction enzymes cut host bacteria’s DNA?
Methylation at target sites
CRISPR verses restriction enzymes: which is innate and which is acquired in bacteria?
Restriction enzymes = innate; CRISPR = adaptive
Where in the CRISPR locus are the viral genomic fragments inserted?
Next to the protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) 5’-NGG-3’ sequence
Genes in the CRISPR locus that encode for nucleases
CRISPR-associated genes (cas)
___________: engineered molecule that combines functions of crRNA and tracrRNA
Single guide RNA (sgRNA)
____________: transcription of CRISPR locus
crRNA
Gain of function CRISPR editing requires….?
A donor template
Example of CRISPR use in pigs
CD163 gene was modified to eliminate binding sequence for porcine respiratory and reproductive syndrome virus (PRRSV) without impairing it’s immune function
Example of CRISPR use in corn
CRISPR introduced a stronger promoter into the ARGOS8 gene to increase drought resistance
Alternative uses for CRISPR (not gene knockout and editing)
Turning genes off and on, adding epigenetic markers, and localizing a specific sequence
Alternative uses for CRISPR depend on what?
dCas9 or dead Cas9 (inactivated Cas9 nuclease activity)
Coined “commotion of the brain” resulting from blow to head (loss of speech, hearing, sight)
Hippocrates (Greece, 5th century BC)
Coined “cerebral concussion”: transient los of function without physical damage
Rhazes (Persian physician, 10th century AD)
Proposed that “brain commotion” was due to bruising of the brain on inside of the skull; hypothesis developed through dissection of human cadavers
de Carpi (Italian anatomist and physician, 16th century AD)
Paper: “Punch Drunk” suggested mental and behaviour problems in boxers as a result of multiple concussions
Harrison Martland (American forensic pathologist, 1928)
Confirmed punch drunk hypothesis in paper “the aftermath of boxing” using autopsies to show visible brain damage in boxers brain
J.A.N. Corsellis (British neuropathologist, 1973)
Coined term “dementia pugilistica”
J.A.N. Corsellis
Coined CTE following autopsies of NFL player’s brains
Bennet Omalu (Nigerian-American neuropathologist, 2004-2005)
Physical brain damage done by concussions (4)
- Stretching and sheering of axons causing leakage of ions across membranes and
- release of tau proteins and the accumulation of tau protein tangles
- damage to blood-brain barrier and release of brain protein S100B into the blood
- Reduced cerebral blood flow
Key correlation found in subconcussive injuries
Number of subconcussive hits and serum 100B levels
Low selenium associated with
several cancers
Low vit A associated with
Increased risk of infectious disease
Riboflavin (Vit B2) associated with
Confers resistance to infectious disease in mice
Low vit B6 associated with
impaired development and differentiation of B and T cells
Effects of Vit C on immune function
Unknown
Vit D known to be involved in
Fighting mycobacterium tuberculus
Low Vit D makes you more prone to
HIV and the flu
Vit E supplementation caused
Enhanced antibody response to some vaccines
Low Zinc affects
Functioning of lymphocytes
High cortisol levels correlated with (in research)
Lower antibody response to infection, lower T cell function
A measurable outcome that is not a clinical outcome, but may correlate with one
Surrogate outcome
Examples of case series (2)
- John Snows and broad street cholera outbreak (start of epidemiology)
- legionnaires disease outbreak at American legion convention
Define epidemiology
the study of the causes and spread of disease
Term for a retrospective epidemiological study
Case-control studies
Example of case-control study (2)
- GRID and rare cancer in young gay men
2. Mouth cancer and people using bleach for mouth wash
Term for a prospective epidemiological study
Cohort studies
Innate defenses (5)
Barriers Phagocytes NK cells Inflammation Fever
Adaptive defenses (3)
B cells
helper T cells
cytotoxic T cells
Communication components of immune system (2)
Cytokines
Antigen presentation
Who pioneered vaccinations and with what disease?
Edward Jenner, used cowpox to vaccinate against smallpox
Who developed polio vaccine?
Salk
Examples of historical resistance to vaccination (3)
- Switzerland 1883 repeal of compulsory smallpox vaccine
- France 1990s media scare that Hep B vaccine caused MS
- Nigeria 2000s fear that polio vaccine caused sterility in children; resulted in fatwa condemning vaccination
Why was thimerosol controversial?
It’s a mercury-containing compound that was used as a preservative; has been phased out after public back-lash but no evidence of harm
What does the MMR vaccine protect against?
Measles, mumps, and rubella
Define opsonin
A molecule that enhances phagocytosis by marking a cell
Properties of adaptive defences (4)
- specificity
- diversity
- self/non-self recognition
- memory
Term for a set of similar antibodies
Immunoglobulin class
Two regions of an antibody molecule
- Variable region
2. Constant region
________ region: different in each antibody
Variable
_________ region: same in each Ig class
Constant
Which cells act to poke holes in plasma membrane of target cell?
Cytotoxic T cells
Antibodies that have different epitopic specificities and bind to different epitopes of the same antigen
Polyclonal antibodies
Antibodies that all have the same epitopic specificity and bind one epitope only
Monoclonal antibodies
A and B antigens on RBCs are ______ attached to ______ and ______
Oligiosaccharide chains attached to glycolipids and glycoproteins
Type A blood: has _ antigen and produces anti-_ antibodies
A antigen; anti-B antibodies
Type B blood: has _ antigen and produces anti-_ antibodies
B antigen; anti-A antibodies
Type AB blood: has _ antigen and produces anti-_ antibodies
A and B antigens; no anti-A or anti-B antibodies
Type O blood: has _ antigen and produces anti-_ antibodies
No antigen; produces anti-A and anti-B antibodies
Universal donor
O
Universal acceptor
AB
Two stages of photosynthesis
- light creates ATP and NADPH
2. ATP and NADPH force hydrogen atoms onto C02 to form glucose
What are the primary molecules being burned in raw biomass?
Cellulose and lignin in plant cell walls
Uncrewed probes (5)
- flybys
- orbiters
- landers
- rovers
- sample return missions
Description of Mars 3-4 billion years ago (4)
- geological activities and volcanoes
- liquid core producing magnetic field
- thick atmosphere of CO2 and water vapour protected from solar winds and cosmic rays by magnetic field
- higher temperatures
- large bodies of water
Significant martian meteorite found in Antarctica around 1996
Allan Hills 84001 (ALH 84001)
What was significant about ALH 84001 (3)
- organic molecules (polycyclic hydrocarbons)
- magnetite with possible biogenic origin
- shapes that looked like nanobacteria
First probe to land on mars in 1976
Viking landers
Preformed GCMS and labeled release of carbon 14
Viking landers
Detected methane in varying trace amounts (2)
- Mars express orbiter
2. Curiosity rover
Recurring slope linae
Streaks of dark discolouration on mars that had previously suggested period liquid water flow on Mars
______ Lander discovered subsurface water ice, snow, and perchlorate
The Phoenix lander
Detected a transient spike in methane in 2013-2014
The curiosity rover
Europa
Moon of Jupiter with surface layer of water ice over a deep salty ocean of liquid water with geologically active seafloor
Enceladus
Moon of Saturn with an ocean of salty liquid water underneath an icy surface crust
Moon of Saturn with 100+ geysers shooting water ice and vapour into space near it’s south pole
Enceladus
Titan
Moon of Saturn with a dense atmosphere rich in nitrogen, with rocky surface layer and rivers/lakes of hydrocarbons; has a methane cycle similar to earth’s hydrological cycle
Telescope that will be the successor to the Hubble in searching or biosignitures of life in atmospheres of extrasolar planets
James Webb Space Telescope
Fermi paradox
If there’s nothing special about us and how we arose as a life form, where is everybody?
Copernican principle
Our place in the universe isn’t special
Enzyme that adds nucleotides to the end of a pre-existing polynucleotide strand based on a template strand
DNA polymerase
UV light shone on DNA-______ ______ complex fluoresces
DNA-ethidium bromide complex
PCR
Polymerase chain reaction
Meiosis is a _______ division
Reductional
An inherited character for which different traits are present in a population
Polymorphism
A location on a specific chromosome that has appreciable variation in a population
DNA polymorphism
Sites in a genome where a short DNA sequence (15-100 base pairs) is repeated over a distance of 100-20,000 bp
Variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR) region
Sites in a genome where a short DNA sequence (2-9bp) is repeated 7-40x
Short tandem repeats (STR) regions
_______: used if only a small amount of DNA is availible
STR loci
Equation used to predict the probability of a match between two unrelated people
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation
Assumes that the probability of a random DNA match equates the probability of innocence
Prosecutor’s fallacy
First use of DNA to solve a crime, exonerate an innocent person, and first use of a DNA dragnet
Pitchfork case
DNA exoneration overturned bite mark analysis
Roy Brown case
Used fake blood samples in tubes in arm
John Schneeberger
Fact-collection and argument driven by an assumed conclusion
Motivated reasoning
Favouring evidence that supports a conclusion already held
Confirmation bias
Logical fallacy of attacking the person making the argument in attempts to discredit their argument
Ad hominem fallacy
Logical fallacy of assuming something to be true/false because of who said it
Genetic fallacy
Logical fallacy of assuming that if an expert in ABC says XYZ, then XYZ must be true
Argument from authority
