Final Exam Flashcards
Cognitive Psychology
The study of the mind: memory, perception, attention, etc.
Socrates
Very interested in the nature of knowledge and belief. He created the Socratic method.
Aristotle
Developed the first known model of how memory works. He compared memory it wax seals: how impressions mold your mind. Younger people have “hotter wax” and it’s easier to have them remember.
Franciscus Donders
Ophthalmologist and physiologist. First to measure reaction time by flashing lights and having participants press a button when they saw the light.
Simple Reaction Time
Flash ->(processing)-> button press
Perceive the light -> physical response
Choice Reaction Time
Flash -> (processing) -> button press but 100 ms difference from Simple Reaction Time bc of choice between two buttons.
Perceive light -> identify location of it -> physical response
Cognitive Research
Lets us measure cognitive processes, which requires inference and requires a model of the processes.
Cognitive Models
Stimulus detection -> stimulus identification -> response organization
Hermann Ebbinghaus
Focused on learning and forgetting by studying meaningless syllables bc they were independent from a meaning bc that would lead to contextual clues. He did research on himself. He also looked at retention and improvement. He was the first person to discover forgetting curve by learning words and testing himself to see how much he forgot.
Savings
Being able to learn something a second time made it easier than learning it for the first time.
Spacing Effect
Spread out your learning, which allows you to remember more.
Wilhelm Wundt
Founded the first psychology lab, which was in Germany. Created structuralism.
Structuralism
Tried to break down the mind down into small pieces to see what it was made up like the table of elements. Wundt did this through introspection.
Introspection
What goes on in your mind when you see something. Introspection is unverifiable, unreliable bc people are different and even the same person could be different, and most mental processes are unconscious.
Behaviorism
All about the study of behavior and things that happen on the outside, which took the spotlight from the mind.
Stimulus -> response instead of stimulus -> mental processing -> response bc behaviorism only studies observable behavior. It was the dominant focus for a while. Can’t explain rats not going back to the same location on a maze.
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s experiment with dog, bell, and food, which led to salivation. Also, with Little Albert and his fear of small white animals.
Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner said, “All we need to know in order to describe behavior: reward good behavior and not bad behavior.” This is how animals are trained.
Cognitive Maps
Mapping out places in your mind.
Instinctive Drift
Going back to their instinct behavior.
Noah Chomsky
Famous linguist who argued that people understand the structure of language. A sentence can be grammatically correct but make no sense.
The Cognitive Revolution and End of Behaviorism
Made it okay to talk about how the mind works again like failure of conditioning animals, human language, developments in brain research, subjective experience, new models arose, bc behaviorism couldn’t explain this.
Behavioral Approach
Overt, deliberate responses like response time, accuracy, recall, etc.
Physiological Approach
Bodily responses and often outside conscious control. Measuring your brain’s activity and eye tracking.
Consolidation
Stabilization of a memory trace after its initial acquisition.
Cognitive Neuroscience
The study of the physiological basis of cognition.
Levels of Analysis
Refers to the idea that a topic can be studied in a number of different ways, with each approach contributing its own dimension to our understanding.
Neurons
Cells that are the building blocks and transmission lines of the nervous system.
Nerve Net Theory
A network believed to be continuous, like a highway system. It was proposed that signals could be transmitted throughout the nets in all directions by providing a complex pathway for conducting signals uninterrupted through the network. Discovered that it was not continuous by Ramon y Cajal.
Ramon y Cajal
A Spanish physiologist who was interested in investigating the nature of the nerve net. He discovered that the fact that the Golgi stain affects less than 1% of the neurons, made it possible for him to see that the nerve net was not continuous, but instead was made up of individual units connected together.
Neuron Doctrine
The idea that individual cells (neurons) transmit signals in the nervous system, and that these cells are not continuous with the other cells as proposed by the nerve net theory.
Microelectrodes
Small shafts of hollow glass filled with a conductive salt solution that can pick up electrical signals at the electrode tip and conduct these signals back to a recording device.
Nerve Impulse (Action Potential)
An electrical response that is propagated down the length of an axon (nerve fiber), which lasts 1 millisecond. APs travel all the way down the axon without changing its height or shape.
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals that make it possible for the signal to be transmitted.
Mind
System that creates representations (everything we experience is the result of something that stands for experience) of the world so that we can act within it to achieve our goals.
Principle of Neural Representation
Everything a person experiences is based not on direct contact with stimulus, but on representations in the person’s nervous system.
How experience is determined by representations in the nervous system.
Quality Across the Senses
Different experience associated with each of the senses like perceiving light for vision, sound for hearing, smells for olfaction, etc.
Quality with a Particular Sense
Shape, color, or movement for vision, or recognizing different kinds of objects based on their shape or different people based on face.
Sensory Neurons (Receptors)
Firing based on light from the world in eye, touch based on pressure, etc. It’s based on external stimulus instead of other neurons.
Brodmann’s Area
Broke the brain down into thousands of pieces.
Single-Cell Recording
Placing an electrode right outside/next to a neuron and measure signals.
Disadvantages: Billions of neurons, but you can only measure one with this. Also, it’s very intrusive and probably the only people who get this are the ones who are getting brain surgery.
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Measures electrodes externally using a cap and getting different brain waves.
Event-Related Potential (ERP)
Related to the particular stimulus given. For example, N400 refers to negative 400 ms in ERP which means that you’ll have a high jump in the graph (when the meaning is wrong) or P600 means a low jump (when the grammar is off).
Feature Detectors
Neurons that respond to specific visual features, such as orientation, size, movement, or the more complex features that make up environmental stimuli.
Hierarchical Processing
Processing that occurs in a progression from lower to higher areas of the brain.
Problem of Sensory Coding
The problem of neural representation for the senses.
Sensory Code
How neurons represent various characteristics of the environment.
Specificity Coding
The idea that an object could be represented by the firing of a specialized neuron that responds only to that object, which is unlikely to be correct.
Population Coding
The representation of a particular object by the pattern of firing of a large number of neurons.
Most or all neurons firing for everyone, but in different patterns.
Sparse Coding
Occurs when a particular object is represented by a pattern of firing of only a small group of neurons, with the majority of neurons remaining silent. This occurs when small groups of neurons are involved.
Localization of Function
Specific functions are served by specific areas of the brain.
Cerebral Cortex
A layer of tissue about 3 mm thick that covers the brain (wrinkled covering).
Neuropsychology
The study of the behavior of people with brain damage.
Wernicke’s Area
Located in left temporal lobe and is specialized in language comprehension. Aphasia in this area leads to not being able to comprehend, but speak.
Broca’s Area
Located in left frontal lobe and is specialized in speech production and grammar. Aphasia in this area leads to not being able to speak, but can comprehend.
Parietal Lobe
Responsible for perceptions of touch, pressure, and pain.
Prosopagnosia
An inability to recognize faces. Also known as face blindness.
Double Dissociation
Occurs if damage to one area of the brain causes function A to be absent while function B is present, and damage to another area causes function B to be absent while function A is present. This is used to conclude that functions A and B are served by different mechanisms, which operate independently of one another.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Brain imaging technique that creates images of structures within the brain.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
Brain imaging technique that measures how blood flow changes in response to cognitive activity. Red and yellow indicate increases in brain activity and blue and green indicate decreases in brain activity.
Voxels
Small cube-shaped areas of the brain about 2-3 mm on a side. Units of analysis for fMRIs.
Fusiform Face Area (FFA)
An area in the temporal lobe that contains many neurons that respond selectively to faces. Damaged in prosopagnosia.
Parahippocampal Place Area (PPA)
Area in the temporal lobe that contains neurons that are selectively activated by pictures of indoor and outdoor scenes. Important for spatial layout and fires for places that you can easily navigate.
Extrastriate Body Area (EBA)
An area in the temporal cortex that is activated by pictures of bodies and parts of bodies, but not by faces or other objects.
Distributed Representation
The idea that specific cognitive functions activate many areas of the brain.
Neural Networks
Group of neurons or structures that are connected together.
Pain Matrix
Consists of a number of connected structures that are involved in the perception of pain.
Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)
Based on detection of how water diffuses along the length of nerve fibers. It’s a fairly new technique that measures communication throughout the brain.
Episodic Memory
Memory for personal experiences.
Semantic Memory
Memory for facts.
Spatial Resolution
How small of an area of space you can zoom into.
Temporal Resolution
How small of a slice of time you can zoom into to see brain activity.
Table of Temporal and Spatial Resolution
SCR EEG PET fMRI
Temporal Resolution Good Good Not Pretty Good
Spatial Resolution Good Not Good Good
Convenience Not Good Not so good Good
What’s most convenient always wins
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
Injected with radioactive isotope and the tracer reflects glucose uptake. Very expensive and you have to avoid small children and pregnant women for a day and a half bc you’re still radioactive. A PET scan shows that when a person listens to someone talk, the left temporal lobe is activated.
Subtraction Technique
Start off with full brain activated and compare to control brain and subtract them out to show what areas are more activated during specific activities.
Techniques That Can Change Brain Activity
TMS and Wada Test
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
Change the magnetism on machine and mess with the electricity of someone’s brain. Temporarily create brain damage.
Wada Test
Often used before brain surgery. Used to determine what side of your brain your language is on. Inject something to put one side of your brain to sleep. If language is severely impaired, then you know your language is on the side that’s asleep.
Grandmother Cell
That one cell that fires every time you see your grandma and only her. Psychologists don’t believe this is real, but that a Jennifer Aniston cell (a cell that responds to certain famous people) is.
Left vs. Right Hemisphere
Left: analytical, breaks things into parts
Right: holistic, “big picture”
Damage to the right, people would see the individual parts, but not whole picture.
Damage to the left, people would see the whole picture, but not the individual details.
Distributed Processing
Localized areas are spread out throughout the brain that gets combined to understand what happens.
Perception
Experiences resulting from stimulation of the senses. Perceptions can change based on added information and can involve a process similar to reasoning or problem solving.
Inverse Projection Problem
The task of determining the object responsible for a particular image on the retina. This involves starting with the retinal image and extending rays out from the eye.
Viewpoint Invariance
The ability to recognize an object seen from different viewpoints.
Bottom-Up Processing
Sequence of events from eye to brain that starts at the “bottom” or beginning of the system, when environmental energy stimulates the receptor. Starts with sensations and builds up into objects and then builds up into scenes.
Top-Down Processing
Processing that involves a person’s knowledge or expectations, originating in the brain, at the “top” of the perceptual system.
Speech Segmentation
The process of perceiving individual words within the continuous flow of the speech signal.
Direct Pathway Model
Model of pain perception that proposes that pain signals are sent directly from receptors to the brain. Pain occurs when receptors in the skin (nociceptors) stimulated and send their signals in a direct pathway from the skin to the brain. This is a bottom-up process bc it depends on stimulation of the receptors.
Hermann Von Helmholtz
19th century physicist and physiologist that had an idea about how people use information.
Likelihood Principle
We perceive the object that is most likely to have caused the pattern of stimuli we have received bc of years of experience with the world.
Unconscious Inference
Our perceptions are the results of unconscious assumptions, or inferences, that we make about the environment. Happens automatically with no thought.
Scene Recognition
Computer being able to recognize different scenes.
Color Constancy
Our perception of the image changes based on the color of the scene.
Size Constancy
Adapt our perceptions to the context. You know that an object is farther in the scene, so your mind is compensating for the distance the object looks like it is: making it look bigger or smaller.
Gestalt Approach
The whole is more than the sum of its parts (opposite of bottom-up processing). He focused on objects having meaning + holistic image as a whole than all of the parts.
Apparent Movement
An illusion of movement perception that occurs when stimuli in different locations are flashed one after another with the proper timing. Movement is perceived, but nothing is actually moving.
Gestalt Psychologists
A group of psychologists who proposed principles governing perception, such as laws of organization, and a perceptual approach to problem solving involving restructuring.
Principles of Perceptual Organization
Used to explain the way elements are grouped together to create larger objects.
Principle of Good Continuation
Law of perceptual organization stating that points that, when connected, result in straight or smoothly curving lines are seen as belonging together. In addition, lines tend to be seen as following the smoothest path. Also, objects that are overlapped by other objects are perceived as continuing behind the overlapping object.
Lines that continue the same path are grouped together.
Law of Pragnanz, Principle of Good Figure or Simplicity
Every stimulus pattern is seen in such a way that the resulting structure is as simple as possible.
Go with the simplest interpretation instead of seeing an abstract object.
Principle of Similarity
Similar things appear to be grouped together. Grouping can occur because of similarity in color, size, shape, or orientation.
Regularities in the Environment
Characteristics of the environment that occur frequently.
Physical Regularities
Regularly occurring physical properties of the environment, such as physical features, the lines, and light.
Oblique Effect
The finding that vertical and horizontal orientations can be perceived more easily than other (slanted) orientations.
Light-From-Above Assumption
We assume that light is coming from above, because light in our environment, including the sun and most artificial light, usually comes from above.
Semantic Regularities
The characteristics associated with the functions carried out in different types of scenes.
Makes it easier to identify an object by its contextual clues or misguide your perception.
Scene Schema
Knowledge about what is likely to be contained in a particular scene. This knowledge can help guide attention to different areas of the scene.
Conceptions of Object Perception
Helmholtz’s unconscious inference, the Gestalt laws of organization, and Regularities in the environment.
Theory of Natural Selection
States that characteristics that enhance an animal’s ability to survive, and therefore reproduce, will be passed on to future generations.
Experience-Dependent Plasticity
Mechanism through which the structure of the brain is changed by its exposure to the environment/experience.
Ex. Kitten reared in horizontal environment only has neurons that fire for horizontal lines.
Brain Ablation
The study of the effect of removing parts of the brains in animals. Experiments using this wanted to determine the function of a particular area of the brain.
Neuropsychology
Th study of the behavior of people with brain damage.
Object Discrimination Problem
A problem in which the task is to remember an object based on its shape and choose it when presented with another object after a delay. Associated with research on the what processing stream.
Landmark Discrimination Problem
Problem in which the task is to remember an object’s location and to choose that location after a delay. Associated with research on the where processing stream.
What/Perception Pathway
The pathway leading from the striate cortex to the temporal lobe. Responsible for determining an object’s identity.
AKA Ventral stream and perception pathway.
Where/Action Pathway
The pathway leading from the striate cortex to the parietal lobe. Responsible for determining an object’s location.
AKA Dorsal stream and action pathway.
Illusory Contours
When we think we see something, but other objects are just perfectly placed. We perceive normal objects.
Common Fate
Things that move together should be grouped together as one object.
Attention
The ability to focus on specific stimuli or locations.
Selective Attention
Attending to one thing while ignoring others.
During early processing, all stimuli comes in (parallel) and hearing it all, and during later processing, only one stimulus was processed (serial). Doing very little processing on everything you hear initially.
Distraction
One stimulus interfering with the process of another stimulus.
Divided Attention
Paying attention to more than one thing at a time.
Attential Capture
A rapid shifting of attention usually caused by a stimulus such as a loud noise, bright light, or sudden movement.
Visual Scanning
Movements of the eye from one location or object to another.
Filter Model of Attention
Model of attention that proposes a filter that lets attended stimuli through and blocks some or all of the unattended stimuli.
Dichotic Listening
Presenting different stimuli to the left and right ears and trying to focus on the stimuli from one of the ears.
Shadowing
Repeating a message out loud as it’s heard. Used in conjunction with dichotic listening experiments.
Cocktail Party Effect
The ability to focus on one stimulus while filtering out other stimuli, especially at a party where there are a lot of simultaneous conversations.
Broadbent’s Filter Model
Early selection model
Broadbent proposed that info passes through sensory memory, filter, and detector.
Filter by physical characteristics (gender, location, pitch), which are processed early.
1) Sensory memory holds all the incoming info for a fraction of a second and then transfers all of it to the filter.
2) The filter identifies the message that is being attended to based on its physical characteristics (things like the speaker’s tone of voice, pitch, speed of talking, and accent) and lets only this attended message pass through to the detector.
3) The detector processes the info from the attended message to determine higher-level characteristics of the message, such as its meaning. Because only the important, attended info had been let through the filter, the detector processes all of the info that enters it. Processes the meaning.
4) The output of the detector is sent to STM and also transfer info into LTM.
Messages->->-> sensory store->->-> filter-> detector-> memory.
Bottleneck Model (Broadbent’s Model of Attention)
Model of attention that proposes that incoming info is restricted at some point in processing, so only a portion of the info gets through to consciousness.
Treisman’s Attenuation Model of Selective Attention
Early selection model.
Messages ->->->-> attenuator –>->->-> dictionary unit -> memory.
This changes the strength of the messages. All messages go through but filtered by physical properties.
Attenuator
Analyzes the incoming message in terms of: 1) its physical characteristics whether it’s high-pitched or low-pitched, fast or slow; 2) its language (how the message groups into syllables or words); 3) its meaning (how sequences of words create meaningful phrases).
Dictionary Unit
Contains words, store in memory, each of which has a threshold for being activated. For example, your name has a low threshold, which means it’s easily detected. It lets the message get through if it’s strong enough.
Late Selection Models of Attention
Proposed that most of the incoming info is processed to the level of meaning before the message to be further processed is selected.
Messages->->-> physical analysis->->-> meaning analysis-> memory.
Meaning is processed later compared to the early selection models.
Processing Capacity
Refers to the amount of info people can handle and sets a limit on their ability to process incoming info.
Perceptual Load
Related to the difficulty of a task.
Low-Load Tasks
Tasks that use few resources, leaving some capacity to handle other tasks (easy tasks).
High-Load Tasks
Tasks that use most or all of a person’s resources and so leaves little capacity to handle other tasks (difficult tasks).
Load Theory of Attention
Proposal that the ability to ignore task-irrelevant stimuli depends on the load of the task the person is carrying out. High-load tasks result in less distraction. For low-load tasks, there’s still processing capacity left. So there are still resources available to process task-irrelevant stimulus, which slows down reaction time.
Overt Attention
Shifting attention from one place to another by moving the eyes. Attending where your eyes are looking.
Covert Attention
Shifting attention from one place to another while keeping the eyes stationary. Attending to where your eyes aren’t looking.
Central Vision
Area you are looking at. Objects here fall on fovea, better detail vision than peripheral retina on which everything else falls.
Peripheral Vision
Everything off to the side.
Fixation
A pausing of the eyes on places of interest while observing a scene.
Saccadic Eye Movement
Rapid, jerky movements from one fixation to the next while scanning a scene.
Stimulus-Salience
The physical properties of the stimulus, such as color, contrast, or movement. This is a bottom-up process bc it depends solely on the pattern of light and dark, color and contrast in stimulus.
Saliency Map
Map of a scene that indicates the stimulus salience of areas and objects in the scene. Highlights visually salient info: contrast, color, brightness, movement, and depth.
Precueing
A procedure in which participants are given a cue that will usually help them carry out a subsequent task. Presented with cues that tells them where to direct their attention.
Same-Object Advantage
Occurs when the enhancing effect of attention spreads throughout an object, so that attention to one place on an object results in a facilitation of processing at other places on the object.
Split-Scan Experiment
Dichotic listening but letters of the alphabet, different letters at the same time in opposite ears, they have difficulty repeating the letters that were presented at the same time in the different ears.
Early Selection Models
Messages->->-> physical analysis-> meaning analysis-> memory.
Broadbent’s filter model and Treisman’s attenuation model.
Automatic Processing
A type of processing that occurs: 1) without intention (it happens automatically without the person intending to do it) and 2) at a cost of only some of a person’s cognitive resources.
Doesn’t require attention (mind does it on its own), unlimited capacity, very difficult to modify, can easily focus on movement, and everything is a benefit of automaticity.
Inattential Blindness
Not noticing something even though it’s in clear view, usually caused by failure to pay attention to the object or the place where the object is located. Ex. paying attention to a cross and not noticing a small square off to the side.
Change Blindness
Difficulty in detecting changes in scenes. Easier when there is no gap between pictures.
Continuity Errors
Changes in some aspect of a scene that should remain the same changes from one shot to the next in films.
Binding
The process by which features such as color, form, motion, and location are combined to create our perception of a coherent object.
Binding Problem
The question of how an object’s individual features become bound together. How our brain brings together features but binds them to the wrong object.
Feature Integration Theory
An approach to object perception, developed by Anne Treisman, that proposes a sequence of stages in which features are first analyzed and then combined to result in perception of an object.
Object-> preattentive stage-> focused attention stage-> perception.
Preattentive Stage
The first step in processing an image of an object where objects are analyzed into separate features. Without attention, all features are independent and free-floating.
Illusory Conjunctions
A situation, demonstrated in experiments by Treisman, in which features from different objects are inappropriately combined. This occurs bc in the preattentive stage, each free-floating feature exists independently of the others.
Focused Attentive Stage
The second stage in which attention causes the combination of features into perception of an object. These “free-floating” features get combined.
Balint’s Syndrome
A condition caused by brain damage in which a person has difficulty focusing attention on individual objects, which causes more illusory conjunctions like with RM.
Visual Search
Something we do anytime we look for an object among a number of other objects.
Feature Search
Finding something based on one feature.
Conjunction Search
Search for a combination of two or more features.
Topographic Map
Spatial map of visual stimuli on visual cortex.
Cognitive Resources
An individual’s resources for carrying out cognitive processing.
Cognitive Load
The processing demands of a particular cognitive task.
Controlled Processing
Requires attention, limited capacity, and can be used flexibly (conscious control over it).
Endogenous Attention
Consciously choosing where to direct our attention.
Exogenous Attention
Something grabs our attention.
Bottom-Up Determinants
Physical features of the stimulus (stimulus salience).
Top-Down Determinants
Knowledge, expectations, and the meaning of the scene.
Valid Cue
Draws attention to the location of the stimulus.
Invalid Cue
Draws attention to an irrelevant location.
“Spotlight” Model
Attention is like a spotlight and you can move it around to focus your attention on it. Sped and accuracy varies with distance.
Object-Based Selection/Attention
When you’re able to direct your attention to the same object in which the cue was flashed on. You can see the target faster where the cue was flashed bc that’s where your spotlight attention is.
Memory
Process involved in retaining, retrieving, and using info about stimuli, images, events, ideas, and skills after the original info is no longer present. Memory is active anytime some past experience has an effect on the way you think or behave now or in the future.
Sensory Memory
The retention, for brief periods of time, of the effects of sensory stimulation. A brief persistence of an image, which is one of the things that makes it possible to perceive movies. Holds almost everything you experience, but very brief.
Short-Term/Working Memory
Information that stays in our memory for brief periods of about 10-15 seconds if we don’t repeat it over and over.
Long-Term Memory
Responsible for storing info for long periods of time, which can extend from minutes to a lifetime.
Mostly not active (at any one time).
Episodic Memory
Memories of experiences, which are long-term memories. Involves mental time travel.
Procedural Memory
A type of LTM that allows us to remember how to ride a bike or any of the other things that involve muscle coordination.
Semantic Memory
Memories of facts such as an address, birthdays, or names of objects.
Knowing, with the idea that knowing doesn’t involve mental time travel.
No personal experience recalled.
Modal Model of Memory
1) Sensory memory is an initial stage that holds all incoming info for seconds or fractions of a second, 2) Short-term memory (STM) holds 5-9 items for about 15-20 seconds, or as long as you want to, 3) Long-term memory (LTM) can hold a large amount of info for years or even decades.
Incomplete bc it doesn’t capture everything with STM (like WM) and LTM.
Structural Features
Types of memory indicated by boxes in models of memory.
Control Processes
Dynamic processes associated with the structural features that can be controlled by the person and may differ from one task to another. Ex. Rehearsal.
Rehearsal
Repeating a stimulus over and over, as you might repeat a phone number.
Encoding
The process of storing a STM into LTM.
Retrieval
The process of remembering info that is stored in LTM.
The process of transferring info from LTM to STM/WM.
Persistence of Vision
The continued perception of a visual stimulus even after it’s no longer present. This persistence lasts only for a fraction of a second, so it isn’t obvious in everyday experience when objects are present for long periods. Ex. moving sparkler.
Whole Report Methods
Sperling’s letter grid experiments.
Subjects are asked to report as many letters as possible from the entire 12-letter display. Avg. of 4.5/12 reported to recall.
Partial Report Methods
Sperling’s letter grid experiments.
Subjects saw the 12-letter display for 50 ms, as before, but immediately after it was flashed, they heard a tone that told them which row of the matrix to report. High to low pitched tones (one for each row). Avg. 3.3/4 letters reported.
Delayed Partial Report Methods
The letters were flashed on/off and then the cue tone was presented after a short delay of 1 second. Avg. 1 letter per row.
Iconic Memory/Visual Icon
Brief sensory memory for visual stimuli that corresponds to the sensory memory stage of the modal model.
Echoic Memory
Persistence of sound that lasts for a few seconds after presentation of the original stimulus.
