Exam 4 Flashcards
Language
A system of communication using sounds or symbols that enables us to express our feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences.
Psycholinguistics
The field concerned with the psychological study of language. The study of psychological and neurological bases of language. The four major concerns are comprehension, speech production, representation, and acquisition.
Lexicon
A person’s knowledge of what words mean, how they sound, and how they are used in relation to other words.
Phoneme
Refers to sounds. The shortest segment of speech that, if changed, changes the meaning of a word. Not the same as letters.
Morphemes
Refers to meaning. The smallest units of language that have a definable meaning or a grammatical function. Not syllables.
Ex. truck has many phonemes but 1 morpheme and trucks has 2 morphemes.
Phonemic Restoration Effect
Occurs when phonemes are perceived in speech when the sound of a phoneme is covered up by an extraneous noise.
Speech Segmentation
Our ability to perceive individual words even though there are often no pauses between words in the sound signal. Difficult bc there are no cues from the sound energy so it’s hard to tell when there are breaks.
Solution: word familiarity, but words often can’t be identified in isolation so we need to use context.
Word Superiority Effect
Refers to the finding that letters are easier to recognize when they are contained in a word than when they appear alone or in a nonword.
Corpus
The frequency with which specific words are used and the frequency of different meanings and grammatical constructions in a particular language.
Word Frequency
The frequency with which a word appears in a language.
Word Frequency Effect
Refers to the fact that we respond more rapidly to high-frequency words like home than to low-frequency words like hike. Nonwords are no frequency.
Lexical Ambiguity
The existence of multiple word meanings.
Meaning Dominance
The fact that some meanings of words occur more frequently than others.
Biased Dominance
When words have two or more meanings with different dominances.
Balanced Dominance
When a word has more than one meaning but the meanings have about the same dominance.
Semantics
The meaning of words and sentences. Involved with Wernicke’s area.
Syntax
Specifies the rules for combining words into sentences (grammatical structure). Involved with Broca’s area.
Broca’s Aphasia
A condition associated with damage to Broca’s area, in the frontal lobe, characterized by labored ungrammatical speech and difficulty in understanding some types of sentences, but can also comprehend.
Wernicke’s Aphasia
A condition caused by damage to Wernicke’s area, in the temporal lobe, that is characterized by difficulty in understanding language, and fluent, grammatically correct, but incoherent speech.
Parsing
The grouping of words into phrases. Central process for determining the meaning of a sentence. Used to analyze the syntax and semantics of a sentence.
Garden Path Sentences
Sentences that begin appearing to mean one thing but then end up meaning something else. Useful in studying how parsing works.
Syntax-First Approach to Parsing
States that as people read a sentence, their grouping of words into phrases is governed by a number of rules that are based on syntax. Only uses semantics when syntax fails.
Late Closure
States that when a person encounters a new word, the person’s parsing mechanism assumes that this word is part of the current phrase, so each new word is added to the current phrase for as long as possible, unless that doesn’t work out grammatically.
Interactionist Approach to Parsing
The idea that info is provided by both syntax and semantics and is taken into account simultaneously as we read or listen to sentences.
Visual World Paradigm
Involves determining how subjects process info as they are observing a visual scene.
Phonology
The sounds of a language and the rules for combining those sounds. Units of sounds. English has 46 phonemes.
Morphology
Units of meaning.
Minimal Pair
Smallest change of sound you can make to change the meaning of a word.
Ex. pig -> dig.
Words
Meaningful units that can stand on their own.
Discourse
Sentences in a larger context.
Inferences
Determining what the test means by using our knowledge to go behind the info provided.
Coherence
The representation of the test in a person’s mind so that info in one part of the test is related to info in another part of the text. Meaningful connections between sentences.
Anaphoric Inferences
Inferences that connect an object or person in one sentence to an object or person in another sentence.
Ex. Saying she (or other pronouns) in the following sentence instead of using her name.
Instrument Inferences
Inferences about tools or methods that occur while reading text of listening about the presence of it.
Ex. Inferring that Hamlet was written using a quill pen and paper instead of a computer.
Causal Inferences
Inferences that the events described in one clause or sentence were caused by events that occurred in a previous sentence.
Situation Model
A mental representation of what a text is about. Spatial and perceptual.
Given-New Contract
States that a speaker should construct sentences so that they include two kinds of info: 1) given info - info that the listener already knows; and 2) new info - info that the listener is hearing for the first time.
Common Ground
The speakers’ mutual knowledge, beliefs, and assumptions. Used to say less for things that took you long to explain before and coordinate meaning.
Syntactic Coordination
The process by which people use similar grammatical constructions.
Syntactic Priming
Hearing a statement with a particular syntactic construction increases the chances that a sentence will be produced with the same construction.
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
The nature of a culture’s language can affect the way people in that culture think. Language can affect cognition.
Strong form: language determines thought.
Weak form: language influences thought.
Categorical Perception
If two items are in the same category, we perceive them as more similar, whereas, if two items are in different categories, it’d be perceived as different.
Problem
Occurs when there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle.
A problem has a difference between our current state and goal state, an obstacle between current state and goal state, and no immediately obvious way to overcome the obstacle.
Problem Solving According to Gestalt
All about:
1) How people represent a problem in their mind.
2) How solving a problem involves a reorganization or restructuring of this representation.
Restructuring
The process of changing the problem’s representation. The solution is obtained by first perceiving the object and then representing it in a different way.
Insight
The sudden realization of a problem’s solution.
Fixation
People’s tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution.
Functional Fixedness
One type of fixation that can work against solving a problem, focusing on familiar functions or uses of an object.
Candle Problem
A problem, first described by Duncker, in which a person is given a number of objects and is given the task of mounting a candle on a wall so it can burn without dripping wax on the floor. This problem was used to study functional fixedness.
Two-String Problem
The subjects’ task was to tie together two strings that hang from the ceiling.
Mental Set
A preconceived notion about how to approach a problem, which is determined by a person’s experience on what has worked in the past.
Water Jug Problem
Subjects were told that their task was to figure out in paper how to obtain a required volume of water, given three empty jars for measure.
B-A-2C.
Tower of Hanoi Problem
A problem involving moving discs from one set of pegs to another. It has been used to illustrate the process involved in means-end analysis.
Initial State
Conditions at the beginning of the problem.
Goal State
The solution of the problem.
Operators
Actions that take the problem from one state to another. Usually governed by rules.
Intermediate States
The various conditions that exist along the pathway between the initial state and goal state.
Problem Space
The initial, goal, and all the possible intermediate states for a particular problem.
Means-End Analysis
A way of solving a problem in which the goal is to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states. You have to work backwards to create subgoals to get to the ultimate goal, and then perform them from the last subgoal to the first.
Subgoals
Small goals that help create intermediate states that are closer to the goal.
Mutilated Checkerboard Problem
A problem that has been used to study how the statement of a problem influences a person’s ability to reach a solution.
Two corners are eliminated and you’re asked if 31 dominoes can fit on it. Not possible.
Think-Aloud Protocol
Subjects were asked to say out loud what they’re thinking while solving a problem. Not to describe what they’re doing, but new thoughts as they occur.
Analogy
Making a comparison in order to show a similarity between two different things that share abstract commonalities despite surface differences.
Analogical Problem Solving
Using the solution to a similar problem to guide a solution of a new problem. Only works if you notice the analogy between the situations and map the correspondences between them, then you use the mapping to generate an analogous solution.
Analogical Transfer
Transferring experience in solving one problem to the solution of a similar problem.
Target Problem
The problem the subject is trying to solve.
Source Problem
Another problem that shares some similarities with the target problem and that illustrates a way to solve the target problem.
Radiation Problem
A problem posed by Duncker that involves finding a way to destroy a tumor by radiation without damaging other organs in the body. Widely used in research in analogical problem solving.
Surface Features
Specific elements of the problem such as the rats and the tumor. Objects, context, and perceptual features. Leads to reminding.
Structural Features
The underlying principle that governs the solution. Doesn’t lead to reminding, but it does lead to reminding in experts in their field.
Analogical Encoding
The process by which two problems are compared and similarities between them are determined.
Analogical Paradox
People find it difficult to apply analogies in laboratory settings, but routinely use them in real-world settings.
In Vivo Problem-Solving Research
Involves observing people to determine how they solve problems in real-world situations.
Problem Solving
A “higher-order” cognitive process, complex (relies on many other processes such as perception, attention, memory, categorization, integrating and manipulating info) and deliberative (not automatic, requires conscious effort), and often slow.
Compound Remote Associates Problem
Give people three random words, such as pine, crab, and sauce, and ask what word relates all three of them. The answer is Apple. The right hemisphere is activated when people said they solved these problems with insight.
Experts
People who, by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing and applying that learning, are know as being extremely knowledgeable or skilled in that field.
Why Experts Are Faster Than Novices
1) Experts possess more knowledge about their fields.
2) Experts’ knowledge is organized differently than novices’. Experts attend more to structural Features than novices in their field.
3) Experts spend more time analyzing problems. More qualitative evaluation of a problem. More time in the beginning, but usually less time overall.
Flexible Thinking Problem
A problem whose solution may involve rejecting the usual procedures in favor of other procedures that might not normally be used.
Divergent Thinking
Thinking that is open-ended, invoking a large number of potential “solutions”.
Creativity
Anything made by people that is in someway novel and has potential value or utility.
Problem Solving Process
Stage 1: 1) Problem finding and 2) Fact finding.
Stage 2: 3) Problem definition and 4) Idea finding.
Stage 3: 5) Evaluation and selection and 6) Planning.
Stage 4: 7) Selling Idea and 8) Taking action.
Group Brainstorming
When people in a problem-Solving group are encouraged to express whatever ideas come to mind, without censorship. Not the best method.
Creative Cognition
A technique developed by Finke to train people to think creatively.
Preinventive Forms
Ideas that precede the creation of a finished creative product.
Latent Inhibition
The capacity to screen out stimuli that are considered irrelevant.
Savant Syndrome
People with autism or other mental disorders are able to achieve extraordinary feats, such as being able to tell the day of the week for any randomly picked date, or exhibit great artistic talent or mathematical ability.
Information Processing Approach
Requires well–defined problems: know all possible moves and know when end state has been reached. Ex. Tower of Hanoi.
It describes a lot of behaviors well and it’s clean, systematic, but people often don’t think so analytically.
Measuring Creativity
Fluency (the number of answers generated), flexibility (the number of kinds of answers generated), originality (the novelty of the answers, relative to other participants).
Decisions
The process of making choices between alternatives. Based on judgments.
Reasoning
The process of drawing conclusions because it involves coming to a conclusion based on evidence. Using existing knowledge to generate new knowledge leading to conclusions.
Inductive Reasoning
Reasoning based on observations, or reaching conclusions from evidence. Conclusions we reach are probably, but not definitely, true. Starts with specific cases. Very common in daily lives.
Heuristics
“Rules of thumb” that are likely to provide the correct answer to a problem but are not foolproof.
Availability Heuristics
Events that are more easily remembered are judged as being more probable than events that are less easily remembered.
Illusory Correlations
Occur when a correlation between two events appear to exist, but in reality there is no correlation or it is much weaker than it is assumed to be.
Stereotype
An oversimplified generalization about a group or class of people that often focuses on the negative.
Representativeness Heuristic
States that the probability that A is a member of class B can be determined by how well the properties of A resembles the properties we usually associate with class B. Related to the idea that people often make judgements based on how much one event resembles another event.
Base Rate
The relative proportion of the different classes in the population. Base rate neglect is ignoring that number that defines a question and just paying attention to the other details.
Conjunction Rule
The probability of a conjunction of two events (A and B) cannot be higher than the probability of the single constituents (A alone or B alone).
Law of Large Numbers
The larger the number of individuals that are randomly drawn from a population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population.
Myside Bias
The tendency for people to generate and evaluate evidence and test their hypotheses in a way that is biased toward their own opinions and attitudes.
Type of confirmation bias.
Confirmation Bias
The tendency to selectively look for info that conforms to our hypothesis and to overlook info that argues against it.
Deductive Reasoning
Reasoning that involves syllogisms in which a conclusion logically follows from premises. Determine whether a conclusion logically follows from statements called premises. Starts with general rules like “all dogs like bacon.”
Syllogism
Consists of two premises followed by a third statement called a conclusion.
Categorical Syllogisms
The premises and conclusion are statements that begin with “all, no, or some.”
Validity
A syllogism is valid when the form of the syllogism indicates that it’s conclusion follows logically from its two premises.
All A are B, All B are C, therefore, all A are C. Valid.
Belief Bias
The tendency to think a syllogism is valid if it’s conclusion is believable.
Mental Model Approach
Determining if syllogisms are valid by creating mental models of situations based on the premises of the syllogism.
Mental Model
A specific situation represented in a person’s mind that can be used to help determine the validity of syllogisms in deductive reasoning.
Conditional Syllogisms
Syllogisms that have two premises and a conclusion like categorical syllogisms, but the first premise has the form “if…then.”
Modus Ponens
The way that affirms by affirming. Type of conditional syllogism. The conclusion follows logically from the two premises.
Modus Tollens
The way that denies by denying. Second premise: not q, conclusion: therefore, not p. Valid.
Wason Four-Card Problem
A conditional reasoning task developed by Wason that involves four card (for ex. with numbers on one side and letters on the other). Various versions of this have been used to study the mechanisms that determine the outcomes of conditional reasoning tasks. You flip over the one that might go against the rule you’re trying to prove to see if it goes against it. Check the two that affirm the antecedent and deny the consequent to see if the rule is correct.
Falsification Principle
To test a rule, it’s necessary to look for situations that would falsify the rule.
Permission Schema
If a person satisfies a specific condition (being of a legal drinking age), then he or she gets to carry out an action (drinking alcohol). Better at answering in this form probably because of familiarity and concrete compared to abstract.
Social Exchange Theory
An important aspect of human behavior is the ability for two people to cooperate in a way that is beneficial to both people.
Dual Systems Approach
The idea that there are two mental systems: a fast, automatic, intuitive system (system 1) and a slower, more deliberative, thoughtful system (system 2).
Truth
Whether the conclusion reflects reality.
Expected Utility Theory
Assumes that people are basically rational. According to this theory, if people have all of the relevant info, they’ll make a decision that results in he maximum expected utility. Allows for variation between people, based on their situation and preference.
Picking the option that has the most value to you. Always moving up on the charts.
Utility
Outcomes that achieve a person’s goal.
Expected Emotions
Emotions that people predict they’ll feel for a particular outcome.
Risk Aversion
The tendency to avoid taking risks.
Incidental Emotions
Emotions that are not caused by having to make a decision.
Opt-In Procedure
Procedure in which a person must take an active step to choose a course of action such as choosing to be an organ donor.
Opt-Out Procedure
Procedure in which a person much take an active step to avoid a course of action.
Status Quo Bias
The tendency to do nothing when faced with making a decision.
Risk Aversion Strategy
A decision-making strategy that is governed by the idea of avoiding risk. Often used when a problem is stated in terms of gains.
Risk-Taking Strategy
A decision-making strategy that is governed by the idea of taking risks. Often used when a problem is stated in terms of losses.
Framing Effect
Decisions are influenced by how the choices are stated, or framed.
Neuroeconomics
Combines research from the fields of psych, neuro, and economics to study how brain activation is related to decisions that involve potential gains or losses.
Ultimatum Game
A game in which a proposer is given a sum of money and makes an offer to a responder as to how the money should be split between them. The responder must choose to accept the offer or reject it. Only one trial (either get some from accepting or nothing from rejecting it). Used to study people’s decision-making strategies.
Anchoring
Relying strongly on presented values to make estimates.
Adjustment
Making judgements by “adjusting” away from an anchor.
Declining Marginal Utility
The more of something you add like money, the less of a difference it makes. Ex. Adding $200 to a bank of $2M doesn’t make a big difference.
Endowment Effect
When you possess something, it automatically becomes more valuable to you. You resell things for more than what you bought it for.
Context Effects
The set of choices themselves can change your order of preference. Ex. When you can’t decide between two reasonable apartments, but then you see a dump apartment and go for the cheaper of the other two.
Sunk Cost Fallacy
Refusing to abandon a prior investment, even when it results in a worst outcome.
Empathy Gap
People have a hard time predicting the preference of others and predicting their own future preferences bc we underestimate the effects of context and we look at our current feelings, like hunger.
