Final Exam Flashcards
who wins congressional elections, and why?
Incumbents are individuals who already hold office. During each term they must decide whether to run again or to retire voluntarily. Most decide to run for reelection. They almost always emerge victorious. The odds for senators to get back their seats is not as high as for House incumbents. Senators represent entire states, which are almost always more diverse than a congressional district. Senators also have less contact with their constituencies, and they receive more coverage in the media and they draw more skilled challengers.
what are the advantages of incumbency?
-what does it take to defeat an incumbent? what are the implications of this?
Advertising-takes place between elections in the form of contact with constituents. The goal is visibility. Staffers track the interests of individual voters, file the information in a database, and then use e-mails or phone calls to engage directly with voters on issues they know they care about.
Credit claiming- Congresspersons seek to enhance their standing with voters by serving individual voters, as well as their districts or states, and by making a point of claiming credit for doing so. They want to enhance their standing with constituents through service to individuals and the district.They want to emphasize serving the constituency. They do this through casework and through obtaining federal funds.
Position taking-take on positions on policies when they vote and when they respond to constituents’ questions. And the positions they take may affect the outcome of their elections, particularly if the relevant issues are salient to voters and the majority of voters disagree with the congressperson.
Lack of strong opponents-those who run are usually not well known or well qualified and lack experience and organizational and financial backing
High cost of campaigning further ensure their success- challengers have to raise large sums if they hope to defeat incumbents. Money buys name recognition and a chance to be heard.
*The implication of this is that there is some stability in the membership of Congress which allows for representatives and senators to gain expertise in dealing with complex questions of public policy. However, it may also stop political change. Safe seats make it harder for citizens to send a message to WA with their votes.
how is Congress internally organized? LEADERS
Much of the leadership in Congress is really party leadership. The House’s leader is the speaker of the House. They hold the only legislative office mandated by the Constitution. The majority party selects the Speakers. The Speaker presides over the House when it is in session, play major role in making committee assignments, appoints or plays a role in appointing the party’s legislative leaders and the party leadership staff, and exercises control over assigning bills to committees. The Speaker’s partisan ally is the majority leader, who is elected by his/her party and schedules bills and rounds up votes on behalf of the party’s position on legislation. Party whips work with them and they convey the word party’s position to rank and file congresspersons. They count votes before they are cast. The minority party has a minority leader, as well as party whips.
Leadership (Senate)- VP and their vote can break a tie. It is the Senate majority leader, aided by the majority whip, corralling votes, scheduling floor action, and influencing committee assignments. The majority leader’s counterpart is the minority leader who has similar responsibilities and is supported by party whip. Power in both houses is decentralized. Leaders are elected by members of their own party and must remain responsive to them.
how is congress internally organized? COMMITTEE SYSTEM
control the congressional agenda and guide legislation from its introduction to its send-off to the president for his signature. There are 4 types:
Standing Committees- handle bills in different policy areas. Each house of Congress has its own standing committees. Senate; Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, Rules and Administration, Foreign Relations. House; Ethics, Energy and Commerce, Natural Resources
Joint committees- exist in a few policy areas, such as the economy and taxation, and draw their membership from both the Senate and the House
Conference Committees- formed when the Senate and the House pass different versions of the same bill. Appointed by the party leadership, a conference committee consists of members of each house chosen to iron out the differences between the Senate and the House bills and to report back a compromise bill
Select committees- may be temporary or permanent and usually have a specific focus. The House and Senate each have a permanent Select Committee on Intelligence for example.
how is Congress internally organized? CAUCUSES
Informal organization has been dominated by a growing number of caucuses, which is a group of members of Congress who share some interest or characteristic. There are nearly 500 caucuses, with members of both parties and both houses. They promote interests and press committees to hold hearings, push legislation, and pull together votes on bills. Like an interest group, but they are members of Congress.
how is Congress internally organized? STAFF
Personal Staff- over 11,000 serve on the personal staffs of members of Congress. Most spend time on casework, providing services to constituents. They answer mail, communicate the members’ views to voter, and help constituents solve problems. Others help with legislative functions.
Committee Staff- employ 2200 staff members. They organize hearings, research legislative options, draft committee reports on bills, write legislation, and keep tabs on the activities of the executive branch.
Staff Agencies- Congressional Research Service (CRS), administered by the Library of Congress and composed of researchers. They track progress of major bills, prepares summaries of bills, and makes information about bills available electronically. The Government Accountability Office (GAO) help Congress perform its oversight functions by reviewing the activities of the executive branch.The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) focus on analyzing the president’s budget and making economic projections about the performance of the economy, the costs of proposed policies, and the economic effects of taxing and spending alternatives.
how does a bill become law, including; role of president
Presidents have their own legislative agenda based on their party’s platform and their electoral coalition. Their task is to persuade Congress that his agenda should be Congress’s agenda. The president must win at every stage of the process of a bill becoming a law (11 times). Presidential leadership of congress is at the margins.
how does a bill become law, including role of committees and leadership
Major legislation party leaders involve themselves in the legislative process much earlier and more deeply then they used to, using a variety of special procedures. Leaders in the House often refer bills to several committees at the same time, bringing more interests to bear on an issue but at the same time complicating the process of passing legislation. They negotiate compromises among committees and make adjustments to bills after the committee report legislation. In the Senate, substantial opportunities for influence, such as filibuster but it is often more difficult to pass legislation in the Senate.
how does a bill become a law, including influence of home state/ district
Party influence- on some issues members of the parties stick together. However on other issues they may become unglued like with economic and social welfare policy. Party leaders in congress help whip their members into line.
Ideology & Polarized Politics- as a result of increased ideological differences between the parties in Congress, it has been more difficult to reach a compromise– and more difficult for the president to obtain policy support from the opposition party
Constituency Opinion VS Member Ideology- constituents expect their representative to represent their interests in WA. On some controversial issues, legislators ignore constituent opinion at great peril.
how does a bill become a law, including role of lobbyists
Lobbyists spend billions lobbying federal officials and millions more in campaign contributions and attempts to try to persuade members’ constituents to send messages to WA. Some of them can provide legislators with crucial policy information, political intelligence, and, often, assurnces of financial aid in the next campaign. They work closely wit their legislative alies, especially at the committee level. Grass-roots lobbying is also common. Restrictions against lobbyists occur by requiring anyone hired to lobby members of Congress to report what issues they were seeking to inluence, how much they were spending on the effort, and their identities of their clients. Also placed severe restrictions on the gifts, meals, and expense-paid travel that public officials may accept from lobbysists.
President: who are they and where do they come from?
The requirements are that they have to at least 35 years old and a US citizen for at least 14 years. Most of the presidents have been white males with differences like Thomas Jefferson, a scientist and a scholar, who liked to collect dinosaur bones in his spare time. Surprisingly Woodrow Wilson was the only political scientist to become president, and he combined a Presbyterian moral fervor and righteousness with a professor’s intimidating style of leadership and speech making. Presidents run through the electoral process. Only thirteen have actually served two terms and 1 in 5 presidents succeeded to the job because they were VP when the president died or resigned. Impeachment is removing a discredited president before the end of a term. The House votes then the case goes to the Senate. By a ⅔ vote, the Senate may convict and remove the president from office.
nature of presidential powers? constitutional and beyond their limitations
The constitution says little about Presidential Powers. They have national security powers like serving as the commander in chief of the armed forces and they can make treaties w/ other nations, but they need Senate approval of 2/3 agreements. They have legislative powers like to veto legislation (Congress may overrule with 2/3 vote of each house). The president can also recommend legislation to Congress. Another power is administrative power “take care that the laws be faithfully executed”. He also has to fill administrative vacancies during congressional recess. His judicial powers are to nominate federal judges, confirmed by the Senate. He can grant reprieves and pardons for federal offenses. Presidents powers have expanded b/c of new technology and prominence in the world. They also have created new roles for themselves. George W Bush withheld information from Congress under doctrine of executive privilege. There are some limitations to there power. For instance only Congress can declare war (loophole) and the Senate has the power to approve of treaties and presidential appointments.
president’s role as chief executive including roles of bureaucracy serving him
President can control bureaucracy by appointing top-level administrators. 500 high-level positions are available. Presidents issue executive orders to run government used to implement statutes, treaties, and provisions of the Constitution. The Vice President’s main job is waiting and presiding over the Senate. The Cabinet are the presidential’s advisers and are the heads of executive departments (ex: state, treasury, defense, Justice). The White House staff has 600 people. The President only sees a few daily: chief of staff, congressional liaison aides, press secretary, national secretary assistance. President turns to them for advice and the white house aides are central to policy making process. The First lady also serves a role and has to maintain a good image. Usually they will concern themselves with a few issues like Michelle Obama and the obesity crisis.
president’s role as chief legislator: nature of pres-cong relations
Presidential Veto can be a tool to persuade Congress to give more weight to the president’s views.
president’s role as chief legislator: president as party leader
President is highly dependent on party to move legislation. Their bonds of the party are more cohesive, and they agree on the same matters. There can be slippage, however, so the president must remain an active leader to party. Even though leaders are predisposed to support presidential policies, they are free to oppose the president so the president will offer amenities.
president’s role as chief legislator: importance of public support
It is important for the president to have public approval. Members of Congress anticipate the public’s reactions to their support for opposition to presidents and their policies. Public approval is the political resource that has the most potential to turn a stalement between the president and congress into a situation supportive of presidential’s legislative proposals. Members of Congress are unlikely to vote against the clear interests of their constituencies. Public approval gives President leverage not command. Electoral mandates are the perception that the voters strongly support the president and his policies. It accords added legitimacy and credibility. Every election produces a winner, but mandates are much less common. Perception of a mandate are weak if the winning candidate did not stress his policy plans in the campaign.
president’s role as chief legislator: legislative skills of the president
include bargaining, making personal appeals, consulting with Congress, setting priorities, exploiting “honeymoon” periods, and structuring congressional votes. Bargaining is basically trading support on policies or providing specific benefits for representatives and senators–occurs less often and plays a less critical role in the creation of presidential coalitions in Congress. President need to bargain only if this coalition doesn’t doesn’t provide the majority. It is also wise for a president to send new legislation to the Hill during the first year in office to exploit the “honeymoon” phase. Setting priorities is also important. The goal is to set Congress’s agenda. Setting priorities is important because presidents and their staff can lobby for a few bills at a time. The President is the nations key agenda builder. But the President’s legislative skills are not the core of presidential leadership of Congress.
president and national security: role as chief diplomat
the president alone extends diplomatic recognition to foreign governments and can terminate relations with other nations. He can also negotiate treaties with other nations. In addition to treaties, presidents also negotiate executive agreements with the heads of foreign governments.
president and national security: role as commander-in-chief
when the constitution was written America did not have a large standing army. Today there is about 1.4 million men and women. Plus nuclear arsenal. Congress has the power to declare war. But it is unreasonable to believe that Congress can convene, debate, and vote on a declaration of war in the case of a nuclear attack.
president and national security: presidential war powers
Presidents pay less attention to war details; for example Congress never declared war during the conflicts in either Korea or Vietnam. War Powers Resolution gave Congress more power by making the President consult with Congress before using military force and mandated withdrawal of forces after 60 days unless Congress declared war or granted an extension, but Presidents usually ignore and can find ways over it.
president and national security: crisis management
A crisis challenges the president to make difficult decisions. Crises are rarely the president’s doing, but if handled wrong it could be the president’s undoing. But it could remake their image. Modern communications allow the president to constantly monitor events almost anywhere.
president and the people (public presidency): “going public” (powers and limitations)
Presidents try to shape public opinion. The White House stages the president’s appearances purely to get the public’s attention. Ceremonial activities give them an important symbolic aura and a great deal of favorable press coverage, contributing to their efforts to build public support.
importance of presidential approval ratings
The White House aims a lot of energy into PR because the higher the President is in the polls the easier it is to persuade others to support his initiatives. Presidents frequently do not have widespread support and often fail to win even majority approval. Presidential approval is the product of many factors like party identification. Citizens focus on the president’s efforts and stands on issues rather than on personality, like integrity and leadership skills. Support can jump because of “rally events” like George W. Bush after 9/11.
president’s relationship with the media: incl; why each needs the other
The press is the principal intermediary between the president and the public. Presidents and press tend to be in conflict. White House monitors media closely. They go to great lengths to encourage the media to project and policies. 1/3 of white house staff are involved in media. Press secretary serves a conduct of information from the White house to the press. Bias is the most politically charged issue in relations between the president and the press. News coverage tends to emphasize the negative. The press needs the president for more views.
myths and realities about bureaucracy
1) Americans dislike bureaucrats- Americans generally like bureaucrats and the treatment they get from them. Americans describe individual bureaucrats as helpful and fair. 2) Bureaucracies are growing bigger each year- this is a little true and false. The number of employees have been expanding, but not federal employees. 3) most work in Washington D.C.- fewer than 1 in 7 civilian employees work in Washington. 4) ineffective, inefficient, red-tape- when they work well no one gives them credit but when they work poorly everyone calls them unfair, competent or inefficient. Bureaucrats deliver mail, test milk, issue social security and student loan checks, run national parks, and perform other routine government tasks in a perfectly acceptable manenr.
how bureaucracies are organized
Cabinet departments- 15 cabinet departments are headed by a secretary, chosen by the president approved by the senate. Each department manages specific policy areas and each has its own budget and staff. Real work is done in bureaus, which divides work into more specialized areas. Independent regulatory commissions have the responsibility for making and enforcing rules to protect the public interest in a particular sector of the economy, as well as judging disputes over these rules (FCC). Each is governed by 5-10 commissioners appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Interests groups consider the rule making by then very important. They can deny a multi-million dollar TV station a license renewal. The next way they are organized is by government corporations that provide service that could be handled by the private sector, and they typically charge for their services, though often at rates cheaper than those the consumer would pay to a private sector producer. The last one is Independent Executive Agencies which are essentially all the rest of government. Their administrators typically are appointed by the president and serve at his will (NASA)
Bureaucracies as implementers. What do they do in this capacity?
Implementation includes three elements: 1) the creation of a new agency or assignment of a new responsibility to an old agency 2) Translate of policy goals onto operational rules and development of guidelines for the program 3) Coordination of resources and personnel to achieve the intended goals.
Bureaucracies as implementers. Problems encountered in this capacity. Why is this important/ significant?
Program design: ex healthcare insurance bill failed b/c companies charged individuals premiums far higher than standard rates and thus they cannot afford the insurances.
Lack of Clarity: bureaucracies may have to deal with broad policies. They also receive contradictory orders. Lack of Resources: lack staff, staff training, funding, supplies, and equipment-to carry out tasks assigned. Ex: US troops in Iraq war had insufficient numbers of body armor and armored humvees and truck to protect them against roadside bombs. Lack of authority- FDA is responsible for protecting public prescriptive drugs but does no testing and relies on manufacturers, however it lacks power to obtain the documents from drug companies. Administrative Routine: Bureaucrats follow standard operating procedures, to help them make numerous everyday decisions. Standard rules save time. Agencies write detailed manuals to cover as many particular situations as officials can anticipate. Routines are essential but they can become frustrating “red-tape”. Administrators Dispositions: administrative discretion is the authority of administrative actors to select among various responses to a given problem. The way bureaucrats use discretion depends on their dispositions toward the policies and rule they administer. Fragmentation: the resources and authority necessary for the president to attack a problem are often distributed among many bureaucratic units. It is often difficult to coordinate so many different agencies. Salmon example. **Successful Voting Rights Act of 1965
bureaucracies as regulators. What do they do in this capacity?
Government regulation is the use of government authority to control or change some practices in the private sector. Bureaucratic agencies typically operate with a large grant of power from Congress. Most agencies first develop guidelines. Next, the agency must apply and enforce its rules and guidelines either in court or through its own administrative procedures. All regulation contains these elements: 1) a grant of power and set of directions from Congress 2) a set of rules and guidelines by the regulatory agency itself 3) some means of enforcing compliance with congressional goals and agency regulation
bureaucracies as regulators: what problems do they encounter in this capacity? Why is this significant/important
deregulation: with growth of regulation, deregulation has become a fashionable term. To critics, regulation distorts market forces and has the following problems: raising prices, hurting America’s competitive position abroad, failing to work well. The importance is that regulation have proved beneficial to Americans. ex: cleaner air
how do presidents try to control bureaucracy?
1) appoint the right people to head the agency. Which sometimes can prove to be unsuccessful like with Clinton whose appointed FBI director barely spoke to him. 2) issue orders-executive orders to agencies. Their messages usually suffice. The presidents speeches may also influence the priorities of bureaucrats. 3) Alter agencies budgets- Office of Management and Budgets threats to cut or add here or there will usually get an agency’s attention. However Congress does appropriating. 4) Reorganize an agency- hard to do b/c the agency may be large and strong. Reagan wanted Department of Education abolished but never managed because it was backed by elements in Congress and strong constituent groups.
How does Congress try to control bureaucracy?
Congress is typically the problem-identifying branch of government, setting agendas but letting the agencies decide how to implement the goals it sets. 1)They influence the appointment of agency heads especially when congress approval is required. 2)Altar an agency’s budget- Congress can order the bureaucracy to spend money in certain ways through detailed provisions in laws or more informally, through statements in reports or legislation. 3)they can hold hearings for an oversight on responsibilities. 4) Rewrite legislation or make it more detailed- to limit bureaucratic discretion and make its instruction clearer. Congress can rewrite legislation. Which can be detrimental
Iron triangles and issue networks. How do they work? who is apart of them? why are they significant/important?
when agencies, groups, and committees all depend on one another and are in close frequent contact. Example: subcommittee on aging, senior citizens interest groups and the social security administration are likely to agree in the need for SS benefits. Subgovernments flourish and add a strong decentralizing and fragmenting element to the policy making process. Iron triangles don’t always persevere like the tobacco one, that came under fire because of health authorities.
who participates in the judicial system?
litigants: two parties must bring a case to the court before it may be hard. Every case is a dispute between a plaintiff and a defendant. The Jury is responsible for the outcome. Attorneys : lawyers are indispensable actors in the judicial system. Access to lawyers is equal, but quality of representation isn’t. Groups: interest groups seek out litigants whose cases seem particularly strong. NAACP. Sometimes groups support them with amicus curiae briefs. Press and media can play a role as well.
structure of the federal court system
At the bottom is starts with original jurisdiction which are the local courts. Then there are the court of Appeals which has appellate jurisdiction. They may review almost all final decisions of district courts and many federal regulator commissions. Next is the Supreme Court which has original jurisdiction and appellate jurisdiction. The Supreme Court hears appeals from the court of appeals, the Court of Appeals for the federal circuit, and some legislative courts. Courts of orginal juridiction hears a case first, usually in a trial. These courts determine facts about a case whtehr its a criminal charge or a civil suit. More than 90% start or end here. Courts with appellate jursidiction hear cases brought to them on appeal from a lower court. Only review issues involved.
how are judges selected for the federal courts?
all federal judges and justices are nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate for a lifetime. If the public elected the judges their decisions on highly visible issues might be more responsive to the public but less to the constitution.
where do supreme court justices come from?
most are lawyers, white males. federal judges have typically held office as a judge or prosecutor. most have been lawyers, fifties-sixities upper middle or upper class, and protestants. most have had experience as a judge. partisanships an important influence. ideology. Their backgrounds are important because it shifts policy inclinations and that’s how President’s influence policies.
the courts as policymakers. what does this entail?
deciding what to decide about is the first step in policymaking. US Supreme Court has control over its agenda. Fed Courts and state courts can request for supreme court review then it’s appeals are discussed in conferences then four votes it’s placed on the docket. Many select civil liberty cases. Cases put on dockets then briefs are submitted by both sides then oral argument. Then conference cases are discussed, votes are take, and opinion writing assigned. Then the opinions are drafted and the decision announced
the courts as policymakers. why is it important/significant? Why is it controversial?
formal written decisions their opinions serve as precedent and thus as the basis of guidance for lower courts. the justices receive amicus curiae briefs that could be submitted by the government or political parties. Administrations use briefs to urge court to change and established doctrines. Lower courts follow precedents of higher courts. Supreme court can overrule precedents like Plessy v. Ferguson/ Brown v Board of Education. Ambiguity of the constitution provides leeway for justices to disagree. Constitution doesn’t specify a set of rules by which justices are to interpret it. Multiple approaches to decisions. It’s controversial because advocates of judicial discretion believe that deference to the intentions of the framers is simply a cover form making conservative decisions. Advocates believe that people who interpret the constitution with the present time are using it as a means of constraining judicial discretion. Judges should not dress up constitutional interpretation with their views.
court as policymakers: implementation issues.
court conveys decisions to the press and the public through formal announcements in open court. Media coverage is sometime imprecise. Lower courts act in accordance to the Supreme Court’s decisions. Implementation is hard because the government can be roadblocks in the way. Elements: interpreting population- composed of lawyers and judges, implementing population- unconstitutional prayer would affect the school board and school. Room for “slippage”, Consumer population- abortion decisions affects those who want an abortion.
what is the scope of judicial power?
Many scholars and judges favor a policy of judicial restraint, where judges adhere closely to precedent and play minimal policymaking roles. Proponents of judicial activism, where judges are less deferntial to elected officials and sometimes make bold policy decisions. Advocates emphasize that courts may alleviate pressing needs.
