Final Exam

Question 1

Describe adolescent development (Physical)

Answer 1

Puberty: defined as point at which sexual reproduction possible
– Before reproduction possible
- Hormonal changes occur prior to visible signs of puberty: start ~8 yrs. for girls, ~9 for boys
– Visible puberty signs begin ~10‐13 yrs.
- Secondary sexual characteristics visible: Breasts, body & facial hair

Girls begin menstruation ~average age 12: Begin growth spurt @~12
Boy’s growth spurt begins ~11, voice change later

Depends on many factors:
Genetic Influence – Age of mother’s menarche is strongest predictor of daughters
Physical Influences – Childhood growth in height, weight, nutrition, and percentage of body fat are predictors
Social Influences – Economic Stresses are related to early/late onset
Psychological Influences - Family constellation, parenting behaviors, life stresses are related to timing

Changes in sleep patterns – Melatonin secretion changes, later onset of sleep
Emotional changes are common as hormones change
- Dopamine increases rapidly between 10-15 (Peaks at about 15)
- Pleasure seeking is common, focus on attraction to high-intensity emotional experiences
- Depression can become more common

Brain structure and functioning change

• Synapses in frontal and parietal areas of brain increase
• Increase in the myelination of nerves (The covering of nerves with a sheet of myelin)

Question 2

Describe adolescent development (Piaget)

Answer 2

Formal Operational Thought (starts ~12 yrs.): Still use senses & concrete objects/examples to learn, now also
– Capable of abstract reasoning, hypothetical thinking
– Can consider what might happen in the future
– Able to debate positions & see variety of sides
– More concerned about abstract concepts: justice, equality
– More realistic, so may cease to “idolize” parents

More complexity/worry in thinking, as
– Able to consider present & future simultaneously
– Able to experience more than 1 emotion at a time (e.g. excited to go to college, but sad to leave H.S. life & friends)

Brain scan research discovered areas of brain related to “executive functioning” not fully formed until mid or even later 20’s: prefrontal lobe
– Executive Function: Command control center of brain (Reasoning, planning, organization, problem‐solving, initiative‐taking)
-Being able to manage in‐depth start to finish of tasks

Question 3

Describe adolescent development (Erikson)

Answer 3

Identity vs. Role Confusion
“Crisis”: exploration & questioning of alternative beliefs & choices as youth determines his/her sense of self
– Beliefs, morals, sexual orientation, goals, vocational identity
– Exploration period may last well into 20’s
– May include exploring the “forbidden”

If parents & society validate/confirm accept identity
– Youth establishes fidelity/loyalty to identity
– Confirmation of self by others related self confidence
– Develop ego strength, “virtue:” Fidelity – “I know who I am”

If parents/soc. do not accept/validate identity, youth may
– Form “Negative” identity, e.g. school drop out, depression
– Or remain confused/uncertain of who s/he is/where heading
– E.g. sexual orientation, religious view, that at odds w/parents

Question 4

Adolescent sexual activity & parenting role in advice/discussion around sexuality

Answer 4

– 42% of boys & 43% of girls

• 9% boys say same sex partner, 5% girls
• For most not frequent, not w/many partners
• Ethnic differences; African American/Latino Americans; Age of first sexual experiences, younger than Eur. Amer.

Teens views on each others’ behaviors in comparison with actual findings:
– Overestimate #/frequency who had sexual intercourse
– Underestimate # contracted STD’s or become pregnant
- 4/10 sexually active teen girls contracted STD
- Without treatment some STD’s can cause infertility or death

Most common birth control used:
- Condoms
d. How common is it for teens not to use any birth control at 1st time having sex?
- Boys: 15% did not Girls: 22% had partner who didn’t use
– Last time sex: Boys 33% no condom Girls 50% partner no condom

e. Findings on parent role in conversations about sexuality & teen safe sex practices
	-Most effective interaction & communication styles  Parents who have open communication about variety of topics w/their children, more likely to have open comm. about sexuality: - Parent explaining, talking (ex: Induction, I Messages, MPS) - Parent listening! (Ex. Active Listening)

– Children whose parents talk with them about sexuality

• Starting in preschool with body part names, & progressing in level of information as child gets older
• Are more likely to practice safe sex when become sexually active

– When parents warm & have clear standards (authoritative)
- Teens tend to engage in less risky behavior

Question 5

What percent of parents report concern about use/abuse of alcohol or substances

Answer 5

74‐80% parents report concern about risks assoc. w/use

Question 6

What are the actual teen patterns of use over time, % by 12th grade?

Answer 6

Alcohol (drank heavily last 2 wks) 20% 29% (5 drinks in a row)
Marijuana used in last 30 days 15% 20%
Cigarettes (use daily) 8% 15%
Cocaine (used in last year) 3% 4%

Alcohol use rises across high school, rises again in college years, usually gradually decreases during 20’s

Question 7

Relationship between alcohol/substance use and teen death statistics

Answer 7

• Boys 2X more likely to die as teens than HS girls (CDC 2014)
  -50% deaths due to accidents
  Most common single cause, car accidents (1 in 3 teen deaths)
  High proportion of these fatal accidents - drinking/drugs implicated

Question 8

What is parent’s role, & what are the findings regarding what parental behaviors are more likely to lower adolescent’s alcohol & substance use or reduce more dangerous behaviors round alcohol;/substance use?

Answer 8

– Parents who model moderation
- More likely to have teens who practice moderation
– Parents who have open conversations about variety of topics w/youth, more likely to have open conversations about alcohol & substance use
Parent explaining, talking (ex.: Induction, I Messages, MPS
Parent listening! (ex.: Active listening)
-Children whose parents talk to them about alcohol & substance use, more likely to practice safe use as teens
– When parent knows where & w/who teen is with (monitor)
- Teens tend to engage in less risky behavior

Question 9

How do adolescent risk taking & dopamine processes during adolescence interrelate?

Answer 9

Neuroscience findings relate to Social‐Emotional Development.
– Teen brain highly responsive to neurotransmitter dopamine which fires brain’s reward circuits
– Teens’ extraordinary receptivity to rewards (esp. social rewards) & novelty often trumps their fear of consequences or costs of a behavior (Steinberg)

– Risk taking: related to “rewards” & interest in novelty

• Matches need for exploration in identity formation process
• May also cloud judgment (Drinking & driving Lack of contraceptive use)

Question 10

How do peer relationships and neurotransmitter/brain scan findings interrelate?

Answer 10

Social connections highly important to teens (Steinberg)
– Adolescent brain highly responsive to dopamine & also neurotransmitter oxytocin which makes social connections more satisfying

Adolescents’ interest & high receptivity to social connections related to
– Teens preferring company of those their own age more than ever before or afterwards
– Brain scan studies suggest teen brains react to peer-social-exclusion similarly to how they react to serious threats to their food supply or physical health

Question 11

Relationship between 4 Parenting Styles and likelihood of parents retaining influence during adolescence & likelihood of teen experimentation during adolescence

Answer 11

Authoritative parent: clear expectations, reasonable, induction
– Parent most likely to maintain influence
– Teen does experiment

Authoritarian parent: parent rigid, mixed results w/youth
– Parent tends to have great influence OR parent w/low influence
– Teen defiant extreme experimenter OR highly compliant

Permissive: parent has not defined own perspective
– Youth free of parental influence, doesn’t establish direction
– Teen immature: conformist OR extreme experimenter

Uninvolved: youth with greatest problems
– Youth more likely to be significantly hostile to parent

Question 12

What are the research findings on parent-child conflict in adolescence regarding increased conflict causes, amount and changes across adolescence?

Answer 12

Conflict increases from childhood to adolescence: Why?
– Adolescent’s new thinking (Formal Op. Th.) related to potential for exploring/questioning/debating
– Adolescent’s identity formation process related to

Exploration of diverging ideas/lifestyles than parents’
– Hormonal changes related to greater emotionality
– Neural transmitter susceptibility related to
Greater risk taking & importance of peer relationships

Question 13

What are the research findings on parent-child conflict in adolescence regarding mother/father differences in amount of p-c conflict?

Answer 13

More early adolescence than later ‐‐ More w/Mom than Dad

Question 14

. When teens & parents have secure attachments & how they resolve & respond to P-C conflict?

Answer 14

• Family members in such families highly motivated to work to restore harmony when anger or conflict occur
• They & their parents tend to be able to regulate their emotional responses & focus on solving problems without excessive frustration
• They & their parents tend to be able to ultimately arrive at compromises

Question 15

Relationship of P-Adolescent conflict to long term P-C relationship

Answer 15

Typical P‐C conflict does not threaten long term emotional tie
Extreme P‐C conflict (~10%) does threaten long term emotional tie

Question 16

What are effective parental “Warmth” approaches during adolescence, & why effective for this age?

Answer 16

Parent makes self available for closeness, warmth, security

• Accept more conflict & peer influence likely w/adolescent
• Hormone changes, identity exploration, “Formal Operational Thought”
• Maintains warmth as listener, consultant, supporter
• Use family stories, events & rituals for closeness
• Use encouragement & emphasize accomplishments
• Provide information/consultation
• Maintains open communication (A. Listening, ‘I” messages, MPS)

Question 17

Explain the change in P-C expectations about the locus of control of youth’s behavior during adolescence

Answer 17

Accept debates: part of normal teen development, not defiance

• Effectively communicate & collaborate/compromise
  – Use induction; I‐messages, active listening; mutual problem‐solving
  – Avoid communication roadblocks
  -Criticism, ridicule
  -Commanding rather than communicating
  -Treating adolescent’s problem too lightly (being dismissive)

Applaud/reinforce & encourage appropriate self‐regulation
Establish clear reasonable limits, but fewer

Monitor: when parent knows where & who teen is with
– Teens engage in less risky behavior
– Most information comes from teen
– More likely to disclose when parents warm & have clear standards

Keep perspective: Don’t hassle little stuff, some conflict natural

Question 18

% of U.S. children born to unmarried mothers

Answer 18

– ~40% of children born to unmarried mothers (5% 1960’s)

Question 19

% of children experience divorce of parents, trend from 1970’s to present?

Answer 19

– ~50% of children (by age 18) experience divorce of parents
c. What % of divorced parents remarry creating step family
– 70‐80% divorced parents remarry, creating step families
d. Trends over time on mother’s age at birth of her first child, % of mothers over age 35 at birth of 1st child

Question 20

how parent conflict affects child when (1) resolved or (2) angry/unresolved

Answer 20

When parents tend to argue w/moderate emotional tone & resolve conflicts positively
– Child tends to learn negotiation skills through modeling

• When parents often in conflict & could not resolve differences
– Indirect effects on child: Increased likelihood parent
• Distracted, angry, sad, negative with child

– Direct effects: Child more likely to have
• High levels of stress hormones
• Higher depression levels
• Greater anxiety & nervousness
• Less interaction with peers
• Greater aggressiveness, noncompliance
• Poorer grades

Question 21

Characteristics of parents who are more likely to get divorced

Answer 21

Majority of US women marry by age 30
– 81% of European American; 77% of Latina; 52% of African American
– Those w/higher education levels more likely to marry than those w/less

However Divorce rate climbed 1950’s, 60’s & 70’s
– Since leveled at between 40‐50% of all marriages, ~50% if have children
– 2/3’s of divorced women & 3/4 of divorced men remarry
- Women more likely (66% of cases) to initiate divorce than men

Divorce more likely if: young at time of marriage, low level of ed., from divorced family, cohabitate pre‐marriage, have child pre‐marriage

– Why divorce?
• Communication problems; incompatibility; marital unhappiness; problems around extramarital affairs, abuse, alcoholism

Question 22

Telling children about divorce: best practices recommended by experts (related to better child coping)

Answer 22

Best if both parents tell children together before one leaves
– Explain the reasons why in ways appropriate to age of child
– Express their sadness that divorce was only alternative
– Explain Parents had problems in marriage that couldn’t be fixed
• Both parents committed to care for children
• Parents know pain their decision causes, truly sorry for causing it
As weeks/months unfold
– Use open communication
• Listen/respond to child’s emotions, concerns, questions
• Repeat clearly & often that divorce in no way child’s fault
• Communicate about each change: why & how will work
– Moves, housing arrangements, school, etc.
– Avoid burdening child with parent’s negative feelings about other parent, or blaming other parent
– Maintain authoritative parenting style

Question 23

What are common ecological changes family & child experience w/divorce?

Answer 23

• After divorce takes about 2 years for families to adjust
• Divorce not single event, precipitates variety of changes/stressors over time for entire family; e.g.
– Level of contact with non‐custodial parent
– Experience of single parent, not dual (for parent & child)
– Family finance changes
– Moving: loose familiar home, change school, loose friends

• Entire social context influences response to divorce
– Peers, neighborhood, school, family, friends, religious group

• Thus high levels of diversity in family responses to divorce

Question 24

Name & describe the 3 types/approaches (including likelihood/percentage of each) of parenting coordination patterns between parents after divorce (found by Hetherington & Emery)

Answer 24

– 25% “Cooperative”: parents put aside own issues & work cooperatively to focus on child needs

– 50% “Distant”: practice parallel parenting; each own family rules/approaches & ignore other parent as much as possible

– 25% “Angry”: engage in ongoing P‐P conflict, often for years; actively criticize other parent
• Child tends to respond w/anger, sadness, hopelessness (ongoing)
• Strong predictor of child w/ongoing mood & behavioral problems

Question 25

After divorce: where do children typically live?

Answer 25

9 in 10 children live primarily with mother (often in different house/community than previous to divorce)

Question 26

After divorce what is the data on frequency of contact with father?

Answer 26

½ living w/mother had NO contact with father in last year

• Only 1 in 10 see father weekly
• Only ~1 in 5 state maintain close relationship w/both parents

Question 27

After divorce, what are child support payment findings & relationship to child outcomes?

Answer 27

• Child support = financial support paid by non custodial parents to help support child
– 77% of those awarded child support received some financial support
• Average = 60% of total awarded by court
• 47% received full amount awarded

• Lack of father support (financial or physical) after divorce related to
– Increased likelihood for child of lower: academic performance, social skills, self esteem

Question 28

Child custody arrangements, factors which reduce child stress in shared custody

Answer 28

Arrangements typically mean shared parenting
– Often hard to do well‐designed shared custody
• If difficult communication/hostile, arranging custody problematic
– Different rules in each household
– Don’t communicate re important events (e.g. P‐T conf.)
– Financial issues
• “Disneyland Dad or Mom” phenomenon

– Elements of shared custody which tend to reduce child stress
• Prepare child for visit w/other parent
• Remain reasonably flexible about visiting arrangement
• Parents work on problems w/each other privately

Question 29

What percentage of children experience relief at parents’ divorce, and what are circumstances when this commonly occurs?

Answer 29

About 10% of children experience relief w/divorce, if
– Adolescent @ time of divorce: able to understand why divorce occurred
– Or saw violence or severe psychological abuse of parent

Question 30

1. What is the ABC-X Model & how does it apply to significant family challenges, such as child maltreatment?

Answer 30

ABC‐X Family Stress & Coping Theory: process by which families respond to family change or stressful event
Normative Stresses: Typical family stresses (E.g. birth of child creates physical exhaustion)
Non‐Normative Stresses: Atypical family stresses (Coping with loss of home in severe flood)

Chronic Stresses: Atypical, persist over time: hardest to cope
(Chronic Trauma or Significant Challenges)
(Child maltreatment)
(Normative Stress easier to cope: see models of successful coping)

Process of response to family change or stressful event
“A”: Stressor Event (S.E.) occurs
“X”: Level of stress family/individual family experience depends on family
“B”: Resources for coping

Such as?
“C”: Perception of event & stress pile up

Such as?
“X”: Type of stressor (normative, non n., chronic)
Level of stress (X) triggered by Stressor Event (A) & level of family adaptation vary by family depending on (B,C,X)

Question 31

What is the Challenge Model and its resiliencies, and how does it apply to significant family challenges?

Answer 31

Challenge Model: Adversity may also stimulate use or development of resiliencies

• Insight, independence, relationships, initiative, creativity, humor, morality
• Resilience: Deserved pride results from persisting in face of severe adversity

Question 32

What are risk factors for child maltreatment (bio-ecological model)?

Answer 32

Cultural beliefs (Macrosystem)

• Physical force an acceptable way to settle differences
• Child is “property” & can be disciplined however parent chooses

 Community stressors (Exosystem)
- Unemployment, poverty, absence of recreational activities &supervised play areas, crowded housing, high crime neighborhood

Family risk factors (Microsystem)

• Significant family conflict (domestic violence between adults)
• 25‐40% of abusing parents were abused themselves
• Often angry, depressed, & form partnerships w/people like self

Question 33

Who is most likely to abuse or neglect a child, and which is most common type of maltreatment?

Answer 33

~90% of maltreatment by parents of child

~ 2 million U.S. cases investigated yearly

Question 34

Who is most likely to abuse or neglect a child?

Answer 34

• Parents with significantly unrealistic expectations of children
• Parental alcohol/substance abuse in 1/3 – 2/3 of documented maltreatment cases
• Child possesses a disability

Question 35

What are findings on pain or damage resulting from child maltreatment?

Answer 35

Profound loss of trust: security/attachment impaired
~80% abused children exp. disorganized disoriented attachmt.
- Parent appears frightened/traumatized or frightening to child
- Child disorganized/confused: sometimes freezing or stilling near parent or avoiding parent, other times approaching happily
- Child’s internal working model of relationships impaired

PTSD often experienced by child

• Repetitive recollections & dreams, abuse re‐enactments in play
• Alternating with feeling numb, disassociated
• Difficulty sleeping & concentrating, alert for another disaster

The longer the abuse occurs, the more likely child will show difference in;
- Emotional self‐regulation, peer relationships, aggression/bullying, depression

Question 36

Intervention when maltreatment occurs: What is the Washington state process (potential 3 steps) of responding to child abuse/neglect?

Answer 36

Child Protective Services
Investigate alleged abuse, arrange emergency foster care

Child & Family Welfare Service (B/C of ABC‐X)

• Support services for child
• Foster care placement; supervised visits with parent
• Medical, mental health treatment
• Intervention services for parent
• Court plan to improve parenting, monitored by social worker
• (E.g.: anger management, counseling, parent ed., drug/alcohol treatment)

Adoption (rare) if unable to become a more competent parent
- Parental rights legally terminated/relinquished (court process)
- Adoption arranged whenever possible
Intervention
1. Separate child from abuser unless supervision provided (foster care)
2. Train/teach/therapy for Parents in effective parenting & address other risks
3. Provide therapy to help child cope w/experiences/feelings (perhaps long‐term)

Question 37

What are protective factors increasing the likelihood that parents who were abused themselves will provide good care to their own children (Minn. Longitudinal Study)?

Answer 37

Studied mothers who were abused as children
~40% abused their own children; ~30% provided borderline care

~30% provided good care to their child; these mothers had (&/or)

• Emotionally supportive relationship with an adult outside of family as child
• Received emotional support in psychotherapy (as child &/or adult)
• Positive relationship w/partner in adulthood who modeled appropriate P‐C relationship
• None of these positive factors found w/mothers who continued abuse