Exam 2 Flashcards
What is driving the increase in number of different “Pathways to Parenthood” that Amato’s research found?
The fact that there are now more pathways available to parenthood; as the typical pathway to family formation has changed (Used to be: Finish school, find a job in the workforce, get married in early 20’s and then have a child)
Of the 7 “Pathways to Parenthood” Amato found, describe the single one of the 7 that is most common.
Continue schooling, begin to work for increasing number of hours until full time work has been achieved, no family formation
Why are parents motivated to become parents (& what is most common reason)?
1 reason become parent: Love & establish close relationship
Other reasons:
– Exciting to watch child grow
– Achieve adult status
– Sense of creativity
– Moral responsibility
– Self‐development: learn responsibility, sensitivity
– Utility: adult child cares for older parent, helps with family business, etc.
How common is it for mothers to become pregnant in the first month of trying to conceive?
20%
What fraction of US children were actively planned for: parents trying to conceive at time of conception?
2/3 of US children were planned for
According to physicians, how soon should prospective parents be concerned about infertility (no conception within what length of time trying to become pregnant?)
Doctors will usually consider infertility as probable after 12 months of unprotected sex
When couples have difficulty getting pregnant (conceiving) what does the data say about the proportion of father/mother causing the infertility?
40% father causes; 40% mother causes; 20% both
If adults find they are infertile, what are their options to assist in conception & what is/are most common?
Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART)
Artificial insemination: Dad/other sperm introduced to uterus w/o intercourse
&/or Hormone treatment to stimulate mom’s ovaries to produce egg
What are the trends over the past 50 years in mothers’ age when they have their first child?
Average age of mother when having first child has risen (1970: 21 Today: 26)
What percentage of mothers have their first child after the mother has turned 35 years old?
22%
What are risk/protective factors for parents/children when parents are over 35 at birth of first child?
Protective Factors: • Lower divorce rate after child’s birth • More financially stable • More education • More attentive/sensitive to child
Risk Factors:
• Higher rate of pregnancy complications
– High blood pressure, gestational diabetes, low birth weight baby
– Labor/delivery: preeclampsia, placenta previa, difficult labor
– Miscarriage (~15% @ 25, ~25% @ 35, ~50% @ 45) & Stillbirth
• Increased genetic abnormalities for fetus (e.g. Downs Syndrome)
• Father over 40 risks: miscarriage; child w/autism, schizophrenia.
Regarding % of US babies are born to unmarried mothers, what is the ~50 year trend? - has this % remained stable, increased, decreased?
The 50 year trend indicates a large increase in the amount of babies who are born to unmarried mothers (40% today as opposed to 5%~ in 1960)
What is the relationship between SES and likelihood of being an unmarried mother at time of child’s birth?
Higher income
• 92% of children with family‐combined income $75K/yr live w/2parents who WERE married at time of child’s birth
Lower income
• 80% of children with family income ~$18K/yr live w/1 parent who NOT married at time of child’s birth
Has the percentage of adolescents giving birth increased, decreased, or remained about the same over the past 50 years?
The percentage of adolescents giving birth has decreased over the past 50 years
9.5% of teens 1960
~3% of teens 2012
What are the risk and protective factors for children/mothers with adolescent mothers?
Risk factors: Increase risk Child has medical, physical, emotional, Social &/or academic problems when Mom:
– Adolescent body related to infant: prematurity & low birth weight, disabilities
– Drops out of school
– Lives in poverty
– Has unstable life‐style (# of: moves, school changes, partners)
– Uses poor parenting & has unreasonable child expectations
– Has low levels of support from family, friends
Protective factors: Increase likelihood Child has social & academic competence, good health when Mom
– Finishes high school (continues education)
– Delays birth of 2nd child
– Uses authoritative parenting; age‐appropriate expectations
– Provides stable home
– Has strong support system
About what % of US children are adopted?
2-4%
What are typical adoptive parent characteristics?
Older, greater financial resources, married longer
What are child/parent outcome findings when adoption occurs?
Parent/Child Outcomes
Mom: No difference in adoptive mom’s warmth, sensitivity
Child: mostly similar to non adopted child,but findings vary by
Child age at adoption, prenatal care & experience, birth mom age, child prior experience (abuse? how long? traumas?)
What do we know about the safety to the fetus of mother’s use of drugs/alcohol during pregnancy?
Increase risk of conception difficulties, prematurity, miscarriage, birth defects (Mom &/or Dad use)
When an infant is born to a drug dependent mother, what are key health risks to the infant?
Prematurity, smaller birth weight, smaller head, greater infant mortality
- Impairments in infant arousal & activity level
- Development of deficits, brain damage, learning disabilities, medical problems
When a mother is obese, what are the health risks to the fetus and newborn?
Fetus produces extra insulin to process excess sugars
– Predisposes infant to obesity, diabetes; risk of breathing difficulties
• Large size newborn: related to birth complications, cesarean section
According to surveys, what is the most common concern of parents of newborns?
Significant loss/lack of sleep resulting in exhaustion
Describe how the ABC-X model explains individuals/family stress level at birth of a child.
A Stressor event occurs: Birth of infant
– X Level of stress experienced depends on B, C & X
B Resources to cope w/stress: Couple communication, C. adaptability, supports?
C Perception of stress: Happy to have child? Child unwanted?
C Level of stress build up: Workplace providing paid leave?
X Type of stress:
» Normative stress: Expected/Typical: (Exhaustion as care for infant while managing other demands)
» Non‐normative stress: Atypical (Managing when newborn is premature & in neonatal intensive care)
» Chronic Stress: Atypical stresses which persist over time (Child born with significant developmental delay (e.g. Down’s syndrome)
. Is it common for new mothers to experience mild short-term mood swings, crying spells, &/or anxiety?
Yes (Day of birth-2 weeks)
Describe typical behaviors of longer-term significantly depressed mothers; and the relationship between longer-term significantly depressed mothers behaviors & infant/child behavior.
Interact less frequently/positively w/infant
• Look at, touch, vocalize, and be affectionate or playful to infant less often
• More likely to see infant negatively
Intervention of this behavior is necessary in order for P-C success to occur
Children of long‐lasting depressed mothers
• Fussier, more irritable, EEGs (electroencephalogram) w/reduced frontal lobe activity
• Preschool, 1st: greater noncompliance & impulsivity; lower social skills
What does research say about adjustment & determiners of ease in adjustment when become a parent
Determiners of ease in adjustment/stress
Parent ability to balance needs
– Autonomy/self‐care And needs of child/partner
• Level of couple satisfaction, communication
Can parents build co‐parenting alliance?
• Incorporate both parents’ views
– E.g. where baby sleeps, how long baby cries before picking up, breast/bottle
– Mom/Dad roles: Devise workload sharing in home
- Expectations of changes baby brings
- Degree of outside supports (family, friends, groups)
- Degree to which workplace is family‐friendly
What % of new mothers experience significant longer-term post-partum depression?
25%
Why are close emotional relationships between parent figures and children important?
Research has shown that close emotional relationships bring about: Security, pleasure, reduced stress, improve health & well being
Describe the relationship between parent to parent quality of relationship & child well-being outcomes.
How does this relate to the Family Systems Theory?
Generally warm/sensitive parents • Child more likely to function well • When couple conflict arose & was Effectively resolved child still felt Secure & functioned well
Theory: because parent relationship generally appeared, stable & reliable, child feels he/she has a stable base
- Reinforces the notion that family units influence each other and as a result having a family that is cohesive is beneficial to all parties within the family unit.
What are GENERAL family characteristics associated with establishing close emotional P-C relationships?
Parent to child emotional closeness created through
– Warm & sensitive marriage/partner relationship
– Sensitive, responsive, consistent care/support to child
– Affection shown to child
– Positively interacting/sharing child’s experiences
– High warmth parenting style, which also builds social skills
- Authoritative parenting style: high warmth & clear/reasonable limits
Define ineffective strategies to respond to child expression of strong emotion; why are they ineffective?
Explain child outcomes with regular use of dismissive or ignoring, reassuring, moralizing approaches.
Dismissive/Ignoring: (Parent does not respond to event)
Reassuring: (Assurance that things will turn around/get better)
Moralizing/Preaching: (Event is deflected and turned around on child)
Opportunity for P‐C closeness missed
– Child tends to have more difficulty regulating & feeling comfortable with own/others’ strong feelings/emotions
Explain & give an example of 6 SPECIFIC strategies to establish close emotional parent-child relationships:
- welcome physical touch
- active listening
- Family routines, rituals and stories
- Encouragement and discouragement
- Creating family time
6.
What are the long term goals of guidance/limit setting/shaping/modifying children’s behavior?
Teach child longer term self‐control, self regulation
-Morality, impulse/self control, socially acceptable behavior
Parents don’t have to be there for child to “behave”
-“Work self out of a situation”
Promote learning within context of family respect & love
-Parent: Sends clear, reasonable message of what expected, why it is important, & expects child to comply
Child: Generally sees m. as fair, complies w/o loss of self respect
Use “Mistaken Behavior” Perspective
- Child beginning learning process
Behavior complex, we all make mistakes when learning
Mistakes = opportunities to teach, educate, guide, model, explain
How are “high power” and “low power” parent guidance or discipline strategies defined; & what are examples of each?
High Power: Aggressive method of parenting, exercising control over child.
Examples – Command – Control child’s environment – Punish » Remove privileges » Strong disapproval when rule violated » Threaten » Use of physical force: spank, swat, shove, grab
• Findings & Assessment
Advantage: Results, child tends to conform quickly
Problems: Increases likelihood child:
-Does NOT INTERNALIZE expectations I. = understand/use independently
-May become Resistant, Defiant, Non‐Compliant &/OR may have Need for Outside Approval, be Overly Compliant
Low Power: Less aggressive method of parenting; focuses on teaching and mutual learning/conversation between parents and children.
Examples of P & C child sharing power (not equally)
– Use Induction: Explain, discuss rules, reason
– Use joint/mutual problem solving
– Use natural consequences to teach
– Directly teach/show/model what expected
– Advantages: Greater success L.T.; Child more likely to
‐ Develop self‐control
‐ Internalize/learn what’s expected & how to achieve it
‐ Understand why limit is expected, so generalizes
‐ Believe limit is fair & reasonable
‐ Follow rule: longer term noncompliance lower than w/Hi P.
– Disadvantage: Learning process not quick
What has research found as clearly “ineffective” discipline and give an example of each type? What child outcomes are common when these are utilized?
(1) Inconsistent discipline
(2) Irritable, harsh, explosive discipline (Frequent hitting/threatening)
(3) Low parental supervision and low involvement on part of parent
(4) Inflexible, rigid discipline
All of these are related to increase in; child’s aggressiveness, rule breaking behavior. This can lead to difficulty in social interaction between child and peers
What is coercive discipline and what are the general findings when c. discipline is regularly used?
Coercive discipline is when a parent forces their child to perform a certain act or chore but while doing so accompanies the request with the threat of, or the delivering of, physical force or verbal punishment.
General findings note that when coercive discipline is used regularly it causes the child to be more aggressive, have less cognitive skills, and increases anxious feelings
What % of US parents report they have spanked or used physical punishment with their child?
45‐94% parents report spank/use physical punishment
Why do parents use physical punishment?
Become frustrated & angry when child doesn’t comply
- Even though usually use more effective, positive methods
Have unrealistic expectations of children
‐ 20% believe by 2 yrs. Child can control their own emotions, not have tantrums (research shows does not occur until 3‐5)
Parent has difficulties in self‐control as result of…
‐ Under great stress w/o sufficient support
‐ Emotional problems
‐ Substance abuse problems
Developmental History: “My parents spanked me” & I
Don’t know (or believe in) alternative methods
Atmosphere of family physical abuse. aggression between P’s & P‐C
What are the characteristics of parents who are more likely to use physical punishment?
– Younger parents more than older
– Mothers more than fathers
– Lower income parents more than mid/higher income
– African American parents more than other groups
– Parents w/depression, other psych. issues or substance abuse
– Members of more religiously conservative Protestant groups
– Parents in Southern US
What % of parents report they used physical punishment with their child when parent was angry?
85%
What % of parents who have used p.p. report they wished they had used an alternative method of punishment?
85%
What are the characteristics of child most likely to receive physical punishment?
Age of child (2-5 experience more PP than children over 5)
Gender of child (Girls less likely to receive physical punishment)
What are child tendencies/outcomes when p.p. is common & continues into later elementary school?
- Less self control & self‐regulation
- More aggression, rule breaking & non‐compliance
- More peer relations difficulties
- For girls: increased depression levels
- Child NOT learning & internalizing parental rule, or generalizing
- Association strongest if PP persists into school‐age years
Describe 9 GENERAL characteristics of effective approaches to shaping/modifying child behavior
– Provide within atmosphere of warmth/respect – Modify to child age/temperament – Use clear & realistic rules, expectations – Use induction, explanation – Be consistent – Teach child how to meet expectation – Notice/reinforce when child complies – Establish collaboratively – Monitor/supervise outcomes
What is induction, and how does it relate to child internalization of expectations & why?
Induction = Explaining WHY; using reasoning
Research supports induction critically important for internalization of rules/expectations & generalization
Allows the child to understand why something is either good/bad rather then just being subject to punishment/reward for no reason
Describe the 6 SPECIFIC effective strategies to guide/shape/modify child’s behavior discussed in class:
- Collaborative family atmosphere
- mutual problem solving
- Modeling
- Reinforcement
- Setting the stage
- Natural and logical consequences
How do parents build emotional closeness & show warmth to infants/toddlers?
Respond based on child age/development, temperament
Provide physical closeness: Cuddle, carry, rock, snuggle
Recognize cues: “read” infant needs, temperament
Respond quickly & consistently to cues
Help w/calming: massage, rocking, cooing
Be accessible, available
Respond positively, show joy
Adjust to child’s rhythm, also provide routine
Provide for child’s physical needs
Be nonrestrictive
– Monitor while give opportunities for exploration
– Use “Setting Stage:” Prepare, time of most accidents 1‐2 yr.
– Give choices: esp. w/toddler
. Describe a newborn infant’s senses at birth (seeing, hearing, smelling ability at birth). How soon does the infant show signs of recognizing biological mother’s voice?
Newborn can see, hear, and smell at birth
– Visual preference for human face shape
– Best hearing in human voice range
• Recognizes mother’s voice at birth
– By ~6 months all senses similar to adults
What is circadian rhythm (& adult typical cycle); how is infants’ C.R. characterized in first few months of life?
Circadian Rhythm = Specific cycles of sleep/wake, activity, hunger
– Adults C.R. is regular, stable & repeat ~every 24 hours
– Newborns C.R. not established: eat, sleep/wake times irregular
– Infant C.R. gradually becomes regular, stable by ~6‐9 months
Describe infant sleep
- How regular are newborns’ sleep patterns?
Irregular, not established; infants usually sleep 18~ hours a day
Wakes every 3~ hours - What effects infant sleep regulation (parents, other)?
Physiological changes
Size (as stomach larger, eats less often)
Brain myelination
Parents (mild effect)
Gently rocking, cuddling, holding infant
Providing routine w/quiet times/places
Define co-sleeping & what does Amer. Academy of Pediatrics recommend about co-sleeping?
Sleeping with an infant in the same bed; don’t do it (can result in suffocation/injury)
Describe infant crying
- How much do newborns & 3 month old infants cry daily (on average)?
Newborns: 2~ hours daily
3 months old: 1~ hour daily - What parental behaviors & child factors are related to less crying?
If parent responds quickly early in life, baby cries less at 3‐12 mo.
Less crying occurs if parents do more:
– Calm rocking, cuddling, snuggling, carrying
– Calm humming, singing, baby talk, cooing
– (as child able to self‐soothe: suck on thumb, reach for pacifier) - What parent behaviors related to more infant alertness?
• Parent hums, sings, smiles talks, or looks at infant
• Rocks, cuddles, holds infant - What does the research say about allowing infant to “cry it out”?
Don’t do it; increases infant stress & amount of crying
What does American Academy of Pediatrics recommend regarding breast versus bottle feeding, why?
6 months of exclusive breastfeeding
-After 6 month period, introduce foods & continue breastfeeding until ~1 year (Recent data suggests starting this sooner)
Provides benefits to both the infant and the mother
Breast Feeding benefits for infant
– Attachment; best nutrition, easiest digestion, fewer allergies, antigens
Breast Feeding benefits for mother
– Attachment, health (reduced breast c. risk, faster recovery)
Why are accident rates for toddlers (1-2 years) so high, & what is parent’s role in reducing?
Because babies are klutzes’ and haven’t fully developed the cognitive ability to decide what the right decision is.
Parents role should be to set a stage (safe environment), and monitor child’s exploration
Define & explain the Attachment process
Attachment: Strong psychological bond/emotional tie formed to specific person(s), often parent; who provides security & emotional support
- Discriminating (preferential)
- Develops over time
- Endures/lasts over time
• Attachment bond unites child & attachment figure
- Child attached to figure(s) who is source of security, safety
- Attachment figure usually provides safe base to explore world from
• Attachment usually fully established by about 1‐2 years
– Attachment can be secure or insecure
Describe the different types of attachment & differences in parent behavior/child outcomes associated with each
Securely attached child
- Infant happy & secure in parent presence
- Infant/toddler protests at parent separation (“separation anxiety”) happy & seeks closeness at reunion
Older child who is securely attached more likely to:
- Be generally responsive to parental guidance
- Show greater curiosity & persistence in tasks
- Have higher social & academic skills
- Show less aggression to peers/adults
Insecurely attached child
– Types associated with parent types
• Anxious‐Avoidant Attachment. (Parent is overly intrusive)
• Anxious‐Resistant Attachment. (Parent is insensitive, unaware, and unresponsive)
• Disorganized/Disoriented Attach. (Parent appears frightening)
– Child less responsive to parental guidance than securely att. child
– Older child more anxious when confronts problem (than securely att.)
What percentage of US infants are described as having a secure attachment?
60-70%
What is the child learning in the process of attachment?
- How I expect to be responded to
- Whether my needs will be understood/met
- Am I lovable?
- What to expect in relationships
