Final Exam Flashcards
1
Q
Who were the earliest ornithologist
A
- Aristotle
- Pliny the Elder
2
Q
Medieval Beasteries
A
were books that made myths about birds like the barnacle goose
3
Q
Old classifications
A
-water birds vs. land birds
4
Q
Bird vocalization
A
Sound is the vibration of air molecules. This works when a band of air is compressed, and then the space formerly occupied is thinned (rarefaction). This process generates
sound waves.
5
Q
Visualizing bird songs
A
-sonogram:representation of a sound plotted as a frequency versus seconds
-oscillogram: represents a sound in terms of
loudness versus time.
6
Q
Physical structure of sound of grouse, owl, doves
A
low frequency sounds
7
Q
Physical structure of sound of forest dwelling birds
A
simple clear whistle to counter revertebrations caused by vegetations
8
Q
Physical structure of sound of open field birds
A
broad songs with a rich structure
9
Q
Calls
A
Brief sounds with relatively simple
acoustic structure.
-usually genetically determined
-Generally concerned with coordinating the behaviorof the members of the species in a nonsexual way such as flocking, feeding, reactions to predators,migration.
10
Q
Songs
A
A series of different notes of different
types so related as to form a recognizable
pattern in time.
-Usually just males vocalize. Primarily under the
control of the male sex hormones and is in general concerned with the reproductive cycle.
-sometimes used in territory defense
11
Q
Non-vocal songs
A
- woodpecker drum rolls
- grouse thunder wings
- hummingbird tail feathers
12
Q
learning to sing can be
A
- learned
2. inherit
13
Q
2 kinds of song learners
A
1.Open-ended: They add new vocalizations to their repertoires throughout their lives. 2.Age limited: They acquire song during a restricted critical or sensitive period at an early age
14
Q
vocal development stages
A
1.Critical Learning Period - Also called the Sensitive PeriodEarly time in life when song information is stored for use inlater stages of learning. Lasts less than a year.
2.Silent Period - The time (as long as 8 months) when syllables learned in the previous stage are stored without practice or rehearsal.
3.Subsong Period - The initial practice time which is like infant
babbling.
4.Song Crystallization - The practice period when the young bird transforms syllables from an unstructured repertoire and organizes them into the correct patterns and timing to produce
the song.
15
Q
Vocal learning birds
A
- white-crowned sparrows
- Indigo bunting
- chaffinsh
16
Q
mimicry birds
A
Northern mockingbird
-Perhaps Mockingbirds use these mimic voices to threaten other species to keep them out of their territories.
17
Q
Duets
A
males and females singing together
red winged black bird and california wren
18
Q
Syrinx
A
- A unique organ in birds that is the source of
bird vocal abilities. It is almost 100% efficient in
producing sounds, unlike the human larynx that is only 2% efficient
19
Q
syrinx sound production
A
sound is produced is by the vibration of
air as it passes through the syringeal passageway
Internal labium –> external labium –> Pressure on the Interclavical Air Sacpushes the Internal
Tympaniform Membrane
20
Q
Syringeal Nerve Control
A
Two separate nerves are on either side of the syrinx, so they can be independently controlled.Some birds can duet with themselves and produce two separate sounds simultaneously; one side produces higher pitched sounds while the other the
lower pitch.
21
Q
Field L
A
- The main hearing center of the brain.
22
Q
HVC
A
Main vocal center. Damage to this results in
birds being mute
23
Q
LMAN
A
controls learning of songs
24
Q
X
A
Plays a critical role in the crystallization of
song.
25
RA
This structure excites motor neurons that
| control muscles
26
Neuron system control of song
- Seasonal cycles are important, since hormones control brain size. As day length increases, so does hormone production.This stimulates the Song Control Centers in the brain to sing.
- Song Control Centers shrink during the nonbreeding season when hormone levels are low, and then increase when hormone levels are high.
27
Genetic based song examples:
- Willow flycatcher
| - Eastern Pheobes
28
Role of song
- Territory defense
| - Mate attraction
29
Functions of songs maybe???
- Great Tits that have a larger song repertoire survive longer than males with smaller repertoire . Perhaps the good health of the larger repertoire males is why this occurs.
- Bewick’s Wren learn more songs if they hatch early in the breeding season than if they hatch late. Early hatching bird have more time to learn songs and probably a better chance to select the better breeding territories.
- Northern Mockingbirds have a larger repertoire the older they get, so this suggests they are healthier and better at surviving
30
Annual cycles
1. reproduction
2. molt
3. migration
31
Migration categories
1. Permanent Residents - Birds reside in the same general location their entire life.
2. Migratory - Birds live in separate geographic areas during different times of the year.
3. Nonannual - The basic biological cycle does not follow a 12-month cycle.
32
Pigeons
1. with ample food and a mate they nest until young fledge (or until a mate is lost),
then
2.transition to nonbreeding stage and molt until they have a mate in breeding condition and adequate food for nesting.
33
Permanent Residents
- typically in tropical regions
| - temperate zone permanent resident by temp/ general cycle.
34
Circadian rhythms
The roughly 24 hour physiological
biological clock.
Pineal Gland is the biological clock in birds. It is located in the top of the brain and has special photosensitive cells that direct the secretion of melatonin, the chemical that regulates daily rhythms with light-dark cycles.
35
Photoperiod
The physiological reaction of organisms to
the length of day or night.
- Hypothalmus of the brain has special light receptors that monitor day length. These receptors are extremely sensitive to low light intensities that directly penetrate the brain. Neurosecretory cells in the hypothalmus release neurohormones that affects the pituitary gland, which then releases a number of hormones that directly affect the activity of the gonads.
- The reproductive, molt cycle, and migration of birds are all regulated by photoperiod
36
Non-annual cycles
- Rufous collard sparrow
- Frigatebirds, Crowned Eagles, Griffon Vultures, penguins and Wandering Albatrosses have non annual because they can't fit their reproductive efforts in one year
37
Types of migration
- obligate annual migration
- obligate partial migration
- facultative partial migrant
- irruptive
- nomad
38
obligate annual migration
All individuals migrate toward the equator for winter.
- acrtic tern
- black poll warbler
39
obligate partial migration
Some individuals migrate while
others remain residents. Individuals with migrate genes always migrate, while individuals with resident genes are
always sedentary.
-under genetic control
40
facultative partial migrant
The number and identity of the individuals migrating varies from year to year in direct response to resource availability.
- not genetic
- black capped chickadee
41
irruptive
Migration schedules do not follow seasonal
changes in climate, but usually are determined by food availability and abundance.
-pine grosbeaks
-snowy owls
42
Nomad
Birds constantly on the move never showing
tendency to return to previously occupied places.
-budgies
43
Patterns of Migration
1. circular migration
2. ancestoral migration
3. Leap frog migration
44
Circular migration
route called a“Scheifenzug”. In this case it is
best for the plover to fly south over the North Atlantic because food is abundant and the route shorter. To return this way would be fatal since spring arrives late in this area, so they
migrate up through the central grasslands that have plenty of spring food.
45
Ancestoral migration:
Occurs in the Pectoral Sandpiper. In this
instance it appears that the bird has expanded its range into Siberia, but instead of flying to south on that continent it flies back over to the western hemisphere and south to its original winter grounds.
46
"leap frog" migration
The population in the Puget Sound area is resident, but the other populations migrate south passing over one another.
47
Differential Migration
When sexes and age classes of fully migratory species move different distances. Typically
females migrate farther than males, and young migrate farther than adults. Bird that migrate farthest are usually smaller in body sized, subordinate in social behavior, and later arriving on breeding grounds.
48
Navigation
1. Visual Landmarks - See watercourses and coastlines.
2. Sun Compass - The position of the sun guides them.
3. Star Compass - At night the position of the North Star guides them.
4. Earth Magnetic Field Compass -Geomagnetic fields can be used to navigate.
5. Odors - Some birds are able to smell trace gases.
6. Twilight Cues - The setting of the sun to define west,and the polarized light it produces are important cues
49
Instinct behavior
Responds fully to the first time a relevant
stimulus is encountered. Requires a key releaser stimulus.
-Releaser Stimulus - Cues that activate a specific response in an individual.
50
Learned behavior
Requires previous exposure to stimulus
before responding fully. Requires stimulus and
memory of past experience.
-birds not eating monarch butterflies
51
Predator defense behavior
```
Mobbing behavior is when birds seek out their
predator enemies.
-predator move on
-predator distraction
-alarm call
-"Attract predator of predator"
```
52
Territory Behavior
Territory:A fixed area defended continuously for some period of time, in either the breeding season or the nonbreeding season or both. It can move in location if centered on a mobile resource
- songs
- visual displays
- physical attacks
53
types of territories
- Feeding
- nesting
- mating
54
Feeding territories
-Cost and benefit:What is worth defending versus the material gain from
maintaining a territory
some birds do NOT have feeding territories due to constant availability of food like swallows, gulls, shorebirds
55
Nesting territories
- typically stable year after year
- nesting colonies
1. shortage of nesting sites
2. abundant or unpredictable food
56
Mating territories
leks: multiple males defending tiny display site
| - grouse
57
Flocks
Usually for feeding
constitute unrelated individuals that form stable foraging partnerships.
(+) low predation, increase cooperation for finding food
(-) increase competition,increase disease, and aggression
i.e titmice
58
advantages of flock
- beating: flush of insects as a group
- cooperative hunting
- predator scanning
- safety in numbers = low risk of being prey
- communal roosting: gather together to keep warm (like turkey vultures)
59
Social rank
- can be beneficial to lower ranking birds if they can eventually climb up the ranks
- sometimes there is a physical sign to show dominance like Harris sparrow-dark face "badge"
- interspecific dominance is usually bigger the bird the greater the dominance
60
Mate choice
- Good genes:
| - runaway sexual selection:
61
Good genes
Males chosen because their genes confer survival advantages on their offspring
-peacocks
62
Runaway Sexual selection
Female mate choice is adaptive strictly because the sons of males with elaborate ornaments will inherit these attributes and become irresistible to females
-long tailed widow
63
Mating systems
1. monogamous
2. polygamy
- polygyny
- polyandry
- Polygynadry
64
Monogamy
form pair bonds for at least a breeding season
-swans
-geese
-pigeons
some can divorce this includes they black oystercatcher and blue tits
lots of cuckoldry
65
Polygyny
Resources defense
-a few dominant males control the territory
Red-winged Blackbird and
Marsh Wren.
66
Polyandry
The evolution of having multiple males and
one female
-spotted sandpiper
67
Polygynadry
communal breeding
68
Brood parasitism
Obligate brood parasites always lay their eggs
in nests of other birds.
-brown headed cowbirds
-cuckoos
69
Bird sex
female as the heterogametic sex (WZ) and the maleis homogametic (ZZ)
- females can control the sex of their offspring
- nucleated red blood cells (nucleus DNA and mitochondrial DNA)
70
reproductive organs
- Most birds have only one ovary on the left side, to reduce weight. (except kiwis)
- testes reside internal sacs
71
copulation
Most birds do NOT have external genitalia instead transfer sperm via cloaca.males have cloacal protuberance that function as a
copulatory organ."penis"
-few birds have penises like the duck
-Usually they will copulate for just 1-2
seconds, but will do this several times a day.
Goshawks average 500-600 copulations per clutch
72
Eggs
Calcium carbonate shell
embryo uses it for bone growth
-albumen"get white" used to store water (90% water 10% protein)
-The Yolk is the energy supply for the embryo and consists of lipids and proteins
-nightjars have white eggs
since they are covered by the sitting parent
-Many ground nesting birds have appropriately colored eggs to reduce visibility,
73
Nesting
Since no bird produces live young, nests are primarily places to hold and protect eggs, and in many species for developing young.
-usually very genetically determined
74
Nest failure
1. Predation
2. Starvation
3. Desertion
4. Hatching failure
5. Adverse weather
75
adaptations for nests
INSECTS AS DETERRENTS
-Many tropical birds, like wrens, nest in Ant-Acacia trees. The ants live on the tree and attack any organism that climbs on the tree.
- Some Trogons nest within a right inside the large paper cavity of a wasp nest.
- Kingfishers, Parrots, and Trogons nest inside the active nests of termites
ODD/DANGEROUS AREAS
- House Sparrows and European Starlings often nest near Imperial Eagles.
- In the tundra, Snow Geese, Brant, and Common Eiders often nest near a snowy Owl, whose presence discourages attacks by arctic foxes.
- The plover-like Water Thick-knee of Africa will often nest along sandy shorelines near breeding crocodiles.
76
Nesting time
- Time can vary as well as the location for some birds they will begin early very close to the ground and move up with time.
- Marsh wren will make multiple nests and allow the mates to chose the best nest
77
Nesting materials
- can use lichens to camoflage with tree-gnatcatcher
- can use decorations swallows/raptors
- feathers for insulation-kinglets/swallows
- stones-american coot
78
Nest diversity
1. false entrance penduline tit
2. no nest
3. scrapes: small indentation on floor
4. platform nest: on tree(mourning dove) or in water (grebe)
5. Cup or statant cup (build on hard surfaces)
79
Nest reuse?
- small birds will not
| - many large birds like osprey will reuse their nests
80
Nest diversity 2
6. pensile cup(stitched by birds) or pendulous cup (deep nest of sticks)
7. adherent cup: made with saliva-glycoprotein oral cement
8. domed nests:are cups with a woven dome usually built by grassland birds
9. Globular nest: domed and completely enclosed
10. retort nest: entrance tunnel
81
Nest diversity 3
11.Social nesters :some birds like the weaver finches, make elaborate communal nests
12.Mound nests: designed
so that the bird does not have to sit on the nest to incubate the eggs. Some rotting compost is added to produce heat, and the eggs are covered.
13.Hole or burrow nests: There
are two types: those that are excavated from wood, and those that are excavated from sandy soil
82
Incubation
- most common 50/50 males and female
- if not female 100% but male feeds the female
- most birds delay the onset of incubation until the clutch is complete.
- incubation varies from 10-90 days
- optimum temperature for bird eggs is from 37-38oC.
83
Hatching
-hatching muscle on the back of the neck (withers once it is used) that is used just to help crack the shell
-adults either eat the egg shell, feed it to
the young bird, or take it away from the nest
for disposal.
84
Nest sanitation
-excrete fecal sacs:easily pick these up and drop it away from the nest
85
Raising offspring
- Altricial
| - Precocial
86
Altricial
Are naked and blind and virtually immobile, they stay in the nest are are totally dependent on the parents for food
1.Semialtricial - Hatchlings stay in the nest (nidicolous), although physically able to the leave the nest within a few hours or the first day; fed and brooded by parents.
Examples are herons, hawks, nightjars, and albatrosses.
2.Altricial - Naked, blind and helpless at hatching. Examples: songbirds, woodpeckers, hummingbirds, swifts, trogons, kingfishers, pigeons, doves, and parrots.
87
Precocial
chicks hatch from larger eggs and are
relatively advanced physically and soon mobile.
1.Superprecocial - Wholly independent. Examples are moundbuilders.
2.Precocial - Hatchlings leave the nest immediately (nidifugous) and follow their parents; pick up their own food, although may need help from parents to locate food.
Examples are ducks, shorebirds, quail, grouse, and ostriches.
3. Subprecocial - Hatchlings leave the nest immediately and follow their parents; are fed directly by their parents. Examples are rails, grebes, cranes, and loons.
4.Semiprecocial - Hatchling are capable of body temperature regulation; mobile but stay in the nest; fed by their parents. Examples are gulls, terns, auks, petrels, and penguins.
88
Altricial advantages
An advantage of altricial development is that birds are able to obtain an adult weight much sooner than a corresponding precocial bird. They also have bigger brains
89
r-selected
meaning rapid population growth
| -House wren
90
K-selected
often represents the carrying capacity of
the environment so stable populations.
-Andean condor
91
Life history strategies
- Larger birds tend to have higher survival rates than smaller ones, especially among closely related species.
- Immature birds nearly always have lower survival rates than birds that have reached reproductive age.
- Birds in tropical areas tend to have higher survival rates than their relatives at higher latitudes, mostly due to migration.
- Birds have higher survival rates than mammals of similar size.
92
Life table
Reproductive effort of a species is expressed in terms of expected annual fecundity, using both the probability of survival of an individual to a particular age, and combining that with the the age-specific fecundity of the individual
-Annual fecundity increases directly with annual adult mortality in birds
93
Evolution of clutch size
The number of eggs that a female lays in each nest is the clutch size. Precocial birds often lay 20 eggs to a nest. Passerines generally vary from 2-6 eggs with as many as 19 eggs. Some birds are invariant in the numbers they lay. Shorebirds lay 4 eggs, hummingbirds and doves lay 2 eggs, and oceanic birds will lay just one egg.
- Food availability on territories is very important factor in the number of clutches that a bird will raise. The better the territory the more clutches.
- Nest attentiveness (measured as time on the nest) increases with annual adult mortality
