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Zoology 242 > Final Exam > Flashcards

Final Exam Flashcards

1
Q

Types of thyroid hormones

A

Thyroxine (T4) tetraiodothyronine
3, 5, 3 tiiodothyronine (T3)
3, 3, 5 triiodothyronine (rT3)

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2
Q

Thyroid follicle

A

circle surrounded by blood capillaries. Thyroid colloid in centre that has precursor protein to form all thyroid hormones

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3
Q

Thyroid hormone

A

only iodine containing hormone

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4
Q

thryoglobulin

A

must be synthesized to get the tyrosine

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5
Q

Thyroglobulin synthesis

A

1) tyrosines on thryoglobulin
2) iodination of tyrosine residues - thyroid peroxidase
3) conjugation of iodinated tyrosine residues to form iodinated thyronine (coupling reaction) thyroid peroxidase
4) storage of iodinated thyroglobulin in the colloid (centre part of follicle)
5) Reabsorption of colloid by phagocytotic action of thyroid epithelial cells
6) Enzymativ processing of reabsorbed thyroglobulin in thyroid epithelial cells

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6
Q

DI-Tyr + DI-Tyr=

A

T4

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7
Q

MI-Tyr +DI-Tyr=

A

T3 or rT3

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8
Q

MI-Tyr + MI-Tyr=

A

T2 forms

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9
Q

MI-Tyr +Try=

A

T1 forms

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10
Q

DI-Tyr + Tyr=

A

T2 forms

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11
Q

Pathways

A

Brain - hypothalamus (TRH for positive, DA for negative) - pituitary thyrotropes (TSH for positive) - thyroid - T4 and T3 - action on target cell

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12
Q

TSH receptor effects

A

cAMP/PKA
cAMP to thyroglobulin
PKA to pentose pathway and ATPase pathway

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13
Q

Thyroid hormone on frog metamorphosis

A

TRH affects prometamorphosis, TSH affects middle of metamorphosis, T3/T4 more for the end part. Prolactin is a precursor for this.

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14
Q

why do we need more T4 than T3, when T3 seems to be used in more situations?

A

T4 binds to thyroid hormone binding globulins (TBG) albanin and pre-albanin and there is lots of TBG to be bound to

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15
Q

Glucocorticoid (GRE) Hormone response element

A
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16
Q

Estrogen (ERE) hormone response element

A
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17
Q

Thyroid Hormone (TRE) hormone response element

A
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18
Q

Vitamin D3 (DR+3, VDRE) hormone response element

A

<AGGTCA

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19
Q

HRE

A

Hormone Response Elements

are often palindromic

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20
Q

Steroid hormone receptor action on transcription

A

1) change in conformation and DNA independent phosphorylation
2) Receptor dimerization via Leu-rich region
3) DNA binding & DNA dependent hyperphosphorylation
4) Stabilization of receptor dimer and DNA binding
5) Recruitment tof adaptor proteins and interactions with nuclear transcription factors and transcription activators/regulators elements
6) Regulation of gene transcription

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21
Q

BP

A

plasma binding protein

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22
Q

TR alpha
TR beta
isoformsq

A

TR alpha in heart

TR beta in liver

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23
Q

TR and RXR

A

in mitochondria - can affect maternal mitochondrial DNA

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24
Q

Nuclear Receptors

A

mediate action of membrane permeant steroid and thyroid hormones (but sometimes they still bind to membrane receptors)

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25
Q

Thyroid on the PLC pathway

A

Only when TH bind to membranes - alphaVbeta3 - it binds TETRAC (T4)

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26
Q

Deamination of T3 and T4

A

T4 - TETRAC

T3 - TRIAC

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27
Q

Insufficient Iodine

A

TSH induced Hypertrophy and goiter

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28
Q

Excess of Iodine

A

poisoning of peroxidase enzyme

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29
Q

Inhibitors of iodine uptake

A

cabbage, brussel sprouts, turnips, broccoli (form thiocyanates upon digestion) thioamides can also hinhibit peroxidase enzyme and deiodinase

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30
Q

MSH

A

Melanotropin Stimulating Hormone (action on skin color in vertebrates)

  • mimic background
  • skin heat absorption and relection
  • visual signalling cues (behaviour)
  • protection from UV radiation
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31
Q

Chromatocytes

A

all colored/pigmented skin cells

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32
Q

chromatophores

A

subgroup of cells - can rapidly redistribute pigments within them

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33
Q

Two types of color change

A

Morphological color change (slow, long term affects)

Physiological color change (relatively fast, short term affects)

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34
Q

Chromatosome

A

organelle containing the pigments

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35
Q

POMC

A

Pro-opiomelanocortin
(precursor for multiple potentially active peptides)
Pars distalis
Pars intermedia

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36
Q

Pars Distalis

A

alpha msh and clip (corticotropin like peptide) -> ACTH

beta msh, blank, end (endorphin) -> beta LPH

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37
Q

Pars Intermedia

A

alpha msh and clip
beta msh and blank -> gamma LPH
end

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38
Q

Physiological color change

A

melanosome aggregated in melanophore (skin light in color), then add MSH to get melanosome dispersed in melanophore and more surface area is covered by melanin-containing melanosomes, so skin darkens and is less reflective

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39
Q

Melanosomes

A

organelles than contain melanin

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40
Q

melanin

A

dark or dark brown pigments

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41
Q

melanophores

A

cells that contain melanosomes

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42
Q

norepinephrine causes…

A

aggregation of chromosomes

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43
Q

Irridophore

A

causes amphibians to appear irridescent - have crystals in cells

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44
Q

Releasing factor of color change

A

CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone)

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45
Q

Release inhibiting factor for color change is

A

dopamine

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46
Q

peptide hormone signal transduction

A

hormone - receptor - G protein - Generation and/or modulation of second messenger levels - modulation of some intracellular biochemical event - biological response

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47
Q

exopeptidase

A

chews N (aminopeptidase) or C (carboxypeptidase) end of peptide

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48
Q

endopeptidase

A

chews middle of peptide

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49
Q

Typrsin inhibitor

A

Part of pancreatic enzymes

50
Q

Lumen and Brunner’s glands

A

Lumen is centre open part of gut, surrounded by Brunner’s glands

51
Q

Peristalic action

A

circular muscle contraction, coordinated with longitudinal smooth muscle action

52
Q

Segmentation

A

hard contraction of circular muscles to create small bolus

53
Q

Secretin

A

blood borne factor released by acid on duodenum that stimulates pancreatic enzyme release

54
Q

Carbohydrate digestion

A 
complex polysaccharides (starch and glycogen) are digested by polysaccharidase (pancreatic amylase) into disaccharides.
Then maltase, sucrase, and lactase further breakdown disaccharides to monosaccharides (pentose/hexose) which can be absorbed in gut epithelium via Carrier Mediated Transport Systems
55
Q

Glycogen

A

more extensive branching than starch. animal based carbs.

56
Q

Acidic climates of digestion

A

mouth - alkaline
stomach - acidic (4-5 ph resting, 1-2 during acid secretion)
intestine - alkaline

57
Q

GLUT2

A

only used in high glucose conditions - for glucose fructose and galactose (in enterocyte cells)

58
Q

GLUT5

A

for fructose (in enterocyte cells)

59
Q

Cellulose

A

Cellulase enzyme to break down in bacteria, snails, anthropods, other vertebrate ferment in gut with bacteria creating short chain fatty acids and methane gas.

60
Q

Short chain fatty acids

A

easily absorbed since water and fat soluble.

61
Q

Chitin

A

Chitinase to break down, in insect eating animals

62
Q

Cecum

A

larger in animals that ferment more (cows and horses) for cellulose digestion

63
Q

Metabolites and microflora

A

Microflora release microbolites which decrease inflammatory responses and cancer, probiotics help grow helpful microflora

64
Q

Lipid Digestion

A

triglycerol with a glycerol backbone and 3 fatty acid side chains or a phosphosugar and 2 fatty acid side chains

65
Q

Acidic Lipases

A

Lingual lipase
gastric lipase
tributyrinases

66
Q

Alkaline lipases

A

pancreatic lipases

pancreatic triacyglycerol lipase

67
Q

lipid emulsifier

A

bile salts

68
Q

micelle

A

single layer of fatty acids, monoglycerides, glycerol and bile salts with HYDROPHILLIC heads OUTSIDE.
can pass through plasma membrane of enterocytes at the microvillus

69
Q

chylomicrons

A

lipid droplets coated in proteins formed in epithelial cells of intestine. carried via lymphatic system to venous blood and processed in liver

70
Q

Glycerol and Fatty acids processed by

A

Kerb’s cycle and beta oxidation pathways

71
Q

Most lipid digestion takes place in…

A

the intestines - pancreatic lipase and cholesterol esterases and bile salts

72
Q

Protein Digestion

A

proteases or peptidases (endopeptidases and exopeptidase) endopeptidase usually acts first (found in stomach)

73
Q

Endopeptidase

A

Breaks bond in middle of peptides (eg. pepsin in stomach secretion, trypsin and chromotrypsin in pancreatic secretion)

74
Q

pepsin

A

needs acidic environment

75
Q

trypsin and chymotrypsin

A

needs slightly alkaline environment

76
Q

Exopeptidase

A

cleaves off terminal amino acids produced by pancreas

77
Q

Tripeptidase and dipeptidase

A

finish off digestion of small peptide fragments in intestine

78
Q

amino acids and dipeptides absorbed in gut by

A

carrier mediated transports (amino acid-Na co-transport)

79
Q

nucleic acid broken down by

A

nucleases, nucleotidases, nucleosidases

80
Q

esters

A

esterase breaks down, formed from an alcohol and an acid

81
Q

How does the stomach not eat itself?

A

pepsinogen (inactive) can be cleaved by acid to pepsin (active). thick layer of sugar based mucus. proenzymes and zymogen

82
Q

proenzymes and zymogen

A

inactive precursor molecules

83
Q

trysinogen and chymotrypsinogen

A

secreted zymogens from pancreas. high pH enterokinase can turn trypsinogen to trypsin.
which in turn, trypsin turns chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin.

84
Q

Nueral vs endocrine

A

neural is quick

endocrine is more long term

85
Q

enterochromaffin like cells system

A

neural and endocrine control of digestive system
etero=gut
chromaffin=a cel type stainable with silver salts

86
Q

Oral cavity digestion

A

amylase (in saliva, starts carb digestion)
food chewed to small bolus
mucin (in saliva, glycoprotein; poteinaceous mucopolysaccharide. acts like lubricant for swallowing)

87
Q

Gastric secretions digestion in stomach

A

carbs, protein, and some fat digested.
pepsin, amylase, lipase, tributyrase present.
3 phases

88
Q

3 phases of gastric secretions

A

Cephalic - initiated and controlled by neuronal input from CNS
Gastric - initiated and controlled by gastric secretions
Intestinal - initiated and controlled by intestinal secretions

89
Q

Ach

A

Acetylcholine

90
Q

SS

A

somatostatin

91
Q

GRP

A

Gastrin releasing peptide

92
Q

GIP

A

Gastric inhibitory peptide

93
Q

VIP

A

Vasoactive intestinal peptide (stomach motility decrease)

94
Q

CCK

A

cholecystokinin (contracts sphincter when exposed to fat)

95
Q

Intestinal Digestion

A

completes protein starch and fat digestion. pancreas secretes enzymes for it.
pancreas source of alkaline fluid secretion in intestines.
bile secretion required for fat digestion

96
Q

Ghrelin

A

orexigenic hormone (motilin family). secreted in stomach. absorbed in blood. fasting increases ghrelin mRNA expression. levels drop within an hour of feeding. can be trained with schedule of eating regularly. acts on brain to stimulate hunger. stimulates pituitary GH secretion ad GH in turn inhibits ghrelin release

97
Q

Leptin

A

anorexigenic hormone. produced by adipocytes. indicator of fat storage. reduce hunger and increase satiation. released by stomach into blood after feeding. can act locally on stomach to decrease gastric secretion and motility. works with ghrelin as antagonistic pair.

98
Q

Pathogen types

A

virus, fungus, parasite, bacterium

99
Q

SCID

A

Severe combined Immunodeficiency syndrome - no T and B cells (adaptive immunity)

100
Q

CD4 cells are

A

essential to having an aquired immune system response

101
Q

Autoimmune disorder triggers

A 
Stress
hormones
metals
food antigens
pesticides & poisons
102
Q

Cells of innate immunity

A

granulocytes
monocytes
macrophages
dendritic cells

103
Q

Cells of adaptive immunity

A

T cells

B cells

104
Q

Humoral components (innate)

A

complement antimicrobial proteins
enzymes
cytokines
receptors

105
Q

humoral components (adaptive)

A

antibodies

cytokines

106
Q

1st, 2nd, and 3rd lines of defense

A

1st & 2nd are innate (skin, ,mucos membranes, chemicals then phagocytosis, complement, interferon, inflammation, fever)
3rd is adaptive (lymphocytes and antibodies)

107
Q

Chemical factors as barriers to infection (innate)

A

fatty acids in sweat
enzymes in tears, saliva, mucos
low pH of sweat and gastric secretions
defensins (small antimicrobial proteins)

108
Q

Biological factors as barriers to infection (innate)

A

normal bacterial flora of the skin and GI tract
inhibit colonization by pathogenic bacteria
Secrete toxic substances and compete for nutrients and attachment sites

109
Q

Hematopoiesis

A

formation and differentiation of blood cells

110
Q

Lymphoid progenitor creates ____ Cells

A

Nk cells
T cells
B cells
dendritic cells

111
Q

Myleoid progenitor creates _____ cells

A 
monocyte/macrophage
neutrophil
eosinophil
basophil
platelets
erythrocyte
dendritic cells
112
Q

Myeloid lineage cells are

A

the first responders to infection

113
Q

types of granulocytes (which are myeloid in lineage)

A

neutrophils
basophils
mast cells
eosinophils

114
Q

myeloid antigen presenting cells

A

monocytes
macrophages
dendritic cells

115
Q

Granulocyte granules..

A

directly damage pathogens, regulate immune cell movements, regulate the activities of other immune cells, and contribute to tissue damage and remodelling

116
Q

chemokines

A

major chemoattractant

117
Q

What is complement system

A

cascade of immune proteins activated by infections. different complement proteins have different functions

118
Q

lactoferrin & transferrin

A

proteins that bind iron that is required for bacterial growth

119
Q

lysozyme

A

enzyme that breaks down the cell well of bacteria

120
Q

interferons (type of cytokine)

A

immune proteins that limit virus replication in cells

121
Q

cytokines

A

hormones of the immune system, proteins that initiate and regulate immune response (kenkines are smaller cytokines) (interlucin is a cytokine)

122
Q

monocytes vs macrophages

A

monocytes - more immature form of macrophage - looks like small compact cell
macrophage - involved in phagocytic processes, picking up stuff in envionrment for antigen recognition (further differentiated monocyte) - look like ball with lots of pieces coming off

Zoology 242 (2 decks)

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