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Psych 2C03 > Final Exam > Flashcards

Final Exam Flashcards

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1
Q

Group

A

a collection of three or more people who interact with each other and are interdependent, in the sense that their needs and goals cause them to rely on one another; assembled together for a common purpose

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2
Q

Social Norms

A

the implicit or explicit roles a group has for the acceptable behaviours, values and beliefs of its members

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3
Q

Social roles

A

shared expectations by group members about how particular people in the group are supposed to behave, determines who should occupy certain positions

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4
Q

Gender roles

A

influence role expectations (occupational aspirations, unequal treatment, changing family)

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5
Q

Group Cohesiveness

A

qualities of a group that bind members together and promote liking between them; influences behaviour and involvement; may impede decision making

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6
Q

Social Facilitation

A

happens when people are working alone but in the presence of an audience; performance is enhanced on simple, well-learned tasks, and diminished on novel, complex tasks; when individual performance can be evaluated

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7
Q

Evaluation apprehension

A

concern about being judged, evaluated; not just the presence of real people

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8
Q

Why the Presence of Others causes Arousal

A
  1. Other people cause us to be particularly alert and vilgilant
  2. They make us apprehensive about how we are being evaluated
  3. They distract us from the task at hand
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9
Q

Triplett (1898) - Cycling

A

individual times were slower than group times

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10
Q

Triplett (1898) - Children’s Fishing Lines

A

individuals performed faster in front of other children.

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11
Q

Zajonc on Arousal

A

Facilitation in terms of one’s dominant response: The presence of others increases physiological arousal; when such arousal exists it is easier to do something simple but more difficult when the task is new or complex; different types of tasks have different optimal levels of arousal

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12
Q

Yerkes-Dodson Law

A

arousal due to mere presence of others affects performance

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13
Q

Michaels et al (1982) - Pool Hall

A

in a pool hall, watch people play pool and take notes on performance to determine initial skill level. Second time, blatantly watched the others play pool (obvious audience); found that good players played well in front of an audience, bad players performed worse

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14
Q

Occam’s Razor

A

difficult to disentangle mere presence theory from other explanations, so are the other explanations really necessary?

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15
Q

Social Loafing

A

happens when people are working together towards the same goal; the more people in the group the less each individual contributes; diminished response; do worse on simple tasks and better on complex tasks in the presence of others when individual performance cannot be evaluated

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16
Q

Ringlemann’s Rope

A

found that when individuals worked in a group they did not perform as well as they did when they were alone; workers pulled loads across a field, individuals did better than groups

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17
Q

Ringlemann’s Theory

A

Coordination loss or loss of motivation? there may be a diffusion of power in a group setting

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18
Q

Ingham et al (1974) - Tug of War study

A

randomly assigned men to 1 of 4 groups; played a tug of war game where the opponent is on the other side of a wall, and the force is measured. Interestingly, none of the confederates are actually pulling, only the subject. This rules out coordination loss. found that pulling power decreases as number of people increases

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19
Q

Diffusion of Evalutation

A

when an individual is in a group, no one can really tell what they are doing/not doing, so they get lost in the crowd; taking a break when they think they can; may not be doing this consciously

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20
Q

How to stop people from loafing

A

Ease of Evaluation, Gender, Group Makeup, Importance of Task, Culture

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21
Q

Ease of Evaluation

A

increase the ease of which each person in the group is evaluated; make them all identifiable (make each person responsible for something different)

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22
Q

Gender

A

males tend to loaf more than females (women are higher in relational interdependence); this changes in co-ed groups

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23
Q

Group Makeup

A

more likely to work hard with friends than with strangers (do not want to let friends down, friends know what you are capable of)

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24
Q

Importance of Task

A

if the task is important you will be more motivated to do well, may even pick up the slack for others (social compensation)

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25
Q

Culture

A

individualized cultures loaf more than collectivistic cultures (collectivists more likely to have interdependent view of self)

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26
Q

Social Compensation

A

If we are motivated to perform well on a task, we might compensate for the loafing of other members and pick up the slack

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27
Q

William and Karan - Butter Knife

A

asked participants to come up with as many uses as they can for a butter knife, either in a group or alone; tested level of teammates effort on performance (either the confederate was super motivated for the reward or he was not)

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28
Q

William and Karan - Butter Knife Results

A

If the confederate was highly motivated, they were more likely to loaf if they knew they could get away with it
If the confederate was not motivated, they compensated for the group member
Subjects always think they are performing their best in every situation

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29
Q

Deindividuation

A

the loosening of normal constraints on behaviour when people are in a group, leading to an increase in impulsive and deviant acts (often with anonymous disguises); people feel less accountable for their actions; lower self awareness and shift away from moral standards, increases extent to which group norms are obeyed

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30
Q

Process loss

A

any aspect of group interaction that inhibits good problem solving; focus on what members know in common, ignore unique information known only to one or a few; make sure discussions last long enough, assign people to different tasks, transactive memory

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31
Q

Transactive memory

A

the combined memory of two people that is more efficient than them memory of either individual

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32
Q

Groupthink

A

a kind of thinking in which maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity is more important than considering the facts i realistic manner

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33
Q

When groupthink takes place

A

when group is highly cohesive, isolated from counter opinions, ruled by a decisive leader; feel invulnerable, will not voice contrary ideas; not all conditions required

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34
Q

How to avoid groupthink

A

remain impartial, seek outside opinions, create subgroups, seek anonymous opinions

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35
Q

Group Polarization

A

the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclinations of its members; risky shift; member bring a greater number of supportive arguments, supports the groups values to be liked

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36
Q

great person theory

A

the theory that certain key personality traits make a person a good leader, regardless of the situation the leader faces; weak theory

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37
Q

Integrative Complexity

A

the ability to recognize more than one perspective on an issue and to be able to integrate these various perspectives; correlated with greatness

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38
Q

Transactional leaders

A

leaders who set clear, short term goals and reward people who meet them

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39
Q

Transformational leaders

A

leaders who inspire followers to focus on common, long-term goals

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40
Q

Contingency theory of leadership

A

the theory that leadership effectiveness depends both on how task-oriented or relationship-oriented the leader is, and on the amount of control and influence the leader has over the group

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41
Q

Task-oriented leader

A

a leader who is concerned more with getting the job done than with the feelings of and relationships among the workers

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42
Q

Relationship-oriented leader

A

a leader who is concerned with the feelings of and relationships among the workers

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43
Q

Social Dilemmas

A

a conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual, if chosen by most people, will have harmful effects on everyone; prisoner’s dilemma

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44
Q

tit-for-tat strategy

A

a means of encouraging cooperation by at first acting cooperatively but then always responding the way your opponent did, on the previous trial

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45
Q

Increase cooperation

A

tit-for-tat strategy, trust individual, cooperation strategy, consistent contributors (free-loader problem); threats are not effective

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46
Q

Negotiation

A

a form of communication between opposing sides in a conflict, in which offers and counter-offers are made and a solution occurs only when both parties agree (assume wants are obvious, bias towards opponent)

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47
Q

Integrative solution

A

a solution to a conflict whereby the parties make trade-offs on issues according to their different interests; each side concedes the most on issues that are unimportant to it but are important to the other side

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48
Q

Reward model of attraction

A

we are attracted to things we find rewarding

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49
Q

Propinquity effect

A

the finding that the more we see and interact with people, the more likely they are to become our friends; physical and functional distance, mere exposure effect; can also increase dislike (if you already dislike them)

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50
Q

Familiarity

A

attracted to those we are familiar with; when they go from neutral to positive they are more attractive, more attractive with mere exposure

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51
Q

Moreland and Beach (1992) - Woman in Classroom

A

had a female confederate attend a class either 0, 5, 10, or 15 times; attractiveness level increased as exposure to individual increased

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52
Q

Alphabet example

A

more attracted to commonly used letters

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53
Q

Similarity

A

we like people who are of similar social status and characteristics because it is comforting; couples tend to be alike; attitudes and values, activity preferences, personality, interpersonal & communication style; attraction can lead to illusion of similarity; over complementarity

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54
Q

Reciprocal Liking

A

when you like someone and that person also likes you; can make up for the absence of similarity, self-fulfilling prophecy, need to like yourself first

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55
Q

Beauty

A

we like people who are good looking; good looks equals good genes, visible beauty is nice to look at; often overcomes other conditions of attraction, consciously and unconsciously; influence first impressions, strongest predictor of desirable, will not admit how important we think good looks are for fear of sounding superficial

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56
Q

What is attractive?

A

the media tells us what is attractive; beauty is associated with goodness, share a set of criteria for defining beauty; baby face features (warmth, youth, nurturance), signs of sexual maturity; visual point of view, smiling faces, size of feet, length of legs, 2D:4D ratio; standards of beauty are generally cross-cultural

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57
Q

Beautiful is good stereotype

A

attractive people receive preferential treatment; takes place across lifespan, large effects on perceptions of social competence; self-fulfilling prophecy

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58
Q

What is not rewarding?

A

upwards social comparisons are not rewarding; comparing ourselves to those who are too attractive can lower SE

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59
Q

The pratfall effect

A

when someone goofs, tends to humanize a person who is seemingly perfect, reinforces a ‘doofus’ factor for the not so attractive

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60
Q

Trivia Bowl Experiment (Aronson)

A

asked subjects to listen to an audio recording of a trivia bowl (answering a trivia question) and manipulated for two variables; the competence of the person answering the question (perfect vs. incompetent); at the end of the interview, there is either just a goodbye or the sounds of the person doing something clumsy; how much would you like to get to know this person?

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61
Q

Trivia Bowl Experiment Results

A

With no pratfall, the competent person was not significantly more attractive than the incompetent person
With pratfall, the competent person’s attractiveness increases significantly, the incompetent person’s attractiveness decreases significantly so that they are not attractive at all

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62
Q

misattribution of arousal

A

the process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way that they do

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63
Q

Capilano Park Study (Dutton and Aron)

A

suspension bridge vs. secure bridges - manipulated arousal level (naturally) by having an attractive male or an attractive female approach a potential subject either in the middle of the low bridge (low arousal) or in the middle of the high bridge (high arousal) and asks them if they are willing to participate in a psychology study, where they have to look at a vague image of a man and woman (a TAT) and tell a story about what is happening in the image. The story is coded for sexual imagery to determine level of attraction to the participant. Subject is given the number of the researcher. Test for whether or not the person calls.

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64
Q

Capilano Park Study Results

A

TAT Stories - Gloria gets more sex talk than Al in both conditions, which increases in the high arousal condition, as opposed to a deacrease for Al in the high arousal condition
Phone Calls - low phone calls for both in low arousal condition; phone call increases significantly for Gloria in high arousal condition
physiological arousal (being on a bridge) is attributed to attraction (to researcher)

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65
Q

White et al (1981) - Unattractive people and arousal

A

subjects told that they are doing a test on physical activity on perception; told to perform a physical activity (arousal) and then asked to watch a video on a female and give ratings on her characteristics and attractiveness. The same woman’s attractiveness level is manipulated through makeup. How attractive do they find her?

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66
Q

Unattractive people and arousal Results

A

In no arousal, attractive version is more attractive than the unattractive version; this gap significantly widens (in both directions) in arousal condition; Response Facilitation Theory - initial response is strengthened by arousal

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67
Q

Passionate Love

A

the feelings of intense longing, accompanied by physiological arousal, we feel for another person; when our love is reciprocated, we feel great fulfillment and ecstasy; but, when it is not, we feel sadness and dispair; characterized by obsession; passionate love scale

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68
Q

Companionate Love

A

the feelings of intimacy and affection we feel toward someone with whom our lives are deeply intertwined; can be applied to non-sexual relationships; has more value in collectivist cultures

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69
Q

Evolutionary Approach

A

an approach derived from evolutionary biology that states that men and women are attracted to different characteristics in each other because this maximizes their reproductive success; preferences survive if they optimize reproductive success; Males seek to propagate widely, women seek to propagate wisely

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70
Q

Parental Investment Theory

A

gametes are the main determinants of mating choices; expense of the egg will have consequences for how the female chooses to mate; cheapness of the sperm will have consequences for how the male chooses to mate;
females should be choosy because they must consider the expense of the egg; eggs are not as common, a baby takes a lot of internal energy during pregnancy, giving birth is a risk; a long-term investment
males have a minimal initial parental investment; can afford to be more opportunistic; not always opportunistic because they want to ensure that the offspring is raised properly, in which case they might be more choosy because settling down is expensive

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71
Q

Yankelovich Research Group Study

A

Question: would you prefer a great bargain on clothes or great sex?
evidence suggests that women say that they are not as interested in sex than men; tend to downplay sexuality

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72
Q

Buss & Schmidt (1993) - sexual opportunism

A

how many sex partners do you want in the next 30 years? - males desire to have more sex with more people than do women
Timing of sexual intercourse; how willing are you to have sex with someone based on how long you have known them? - men, again, are on average significantly more willing

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73
Q

Clarke and Hatfield (1989) - sexual opportunism

A

recruited good looking researchers and approach members of the opposite sex and ask the subjects if they want to g on a date with the individual, go back to the individuals apartment, or blatantly have sex with the individual
equal on the date; gender gap significantly increases when asked to go to apartment; gap increases greater when asked for sex
generally, men are more likely than women to take the opportunity to have sex

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74
Q

What Women Want

A

resources (need in evolutionary history to desire a mate that can provide for and shelter; increase survival of offspring); protection (ancestral history requires male protection of offspring; predation, other men); commitment (need to secure in place the things she needs to successfully raise offspring)

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75
Q

What Men Want

A

Looks (waist-to-hip ratio correlated with fertility, women with more feminine appearance are associated with more frequent ovulation, higher ease of getting and staying pregnant, more sperm-friendly pH balance in uterus); Sexual Faithfulness (if she is having babies you want it to be your baby; sexual infidelity is unviable, female promiscuity is a turn of in terms of mating, assessment of faithfulness when the male is choosy and looking to settle, why females are more likely to understate how many sexual partners they’ve had)

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76
Q

attachment theory

A

the theory that our behaviour in adult relationships is based on our experiences as infants with our parents as caregivers; relationships generalize to other relationships; insecurity tends to result in a self-fulfilling prophecy

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77
Q

Attachment Styles

A

the expectations people develop about relationships with others based on the relationships they had with their primary caregiver when they were infants; reflects how people handle conflict, coping strategies; may be seen as schemas

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78
Q

Secure attachment

A

an attachment style characterized by trust, a lack of concern with being abandoned, and the view that one is worthy and well-liked

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79
Q

Avoidant Style

A

an attachment style characterized by a suppression of attachment needs, because attempts to be intimate have been rebuffed; people with this style find it difficult to develop intimate relationships

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80
Q

Fearful Avoidant Style

A

a type of avoidant attachment in which close relationships are avoided because of mistrust and fears of being hurt

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81
Q

Dismissive avoidant style

A

a type of avoidant attachment in which the person is self-sufficient and claims to not need close relationships

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82
Q

Anxious/Ambivalent attachment style

A

an attachment style characterized by a concern that others will not reciprocate ones desire for intimacy, resulting in higher-than-usual levels of anxiety

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83
Q

Social Exchange theory

A

the theory that how people feel about a relationship depends on their perceptions of the rewards and costs of the relationship they deserve, and the probability that they could have a better relationship with someone else

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84
Q

Reward/Cost Ratio

A

the notion that there is a balance between the rewards that comes from a relationship and the personal cost of maintaining the relationship; if the ratio is not favourable, the result is dissatisfaction with the relationship

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85
Q

Comparison Level

A

people’s expectations about the levels of rewards and costs that they deserve in a relationship

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86
Q

Comparison Level for Alternatives

A

people’s expectations about the level of rewards and punishments they would receive in an alternate relationship

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87
Q

Investment Model

A

the theory that people’s commitment to a relationship depends on their satisfaction with the relationship in terms of rewards, costs, and comparison level; their comparison level for alternatives; and how much they have invested in the relationship that would be lost by leaving it

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88
Q

Equity Theory

A

the theory that people are happiest with the relationships in which the rewards and costs that a person experiences, and the contributions that he or she makes to the relationship are roughly equal to the rewards, costs and contributions of the other person

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89
Q

exchange relationships

A

relationships governed by the need for equity

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90
Q

Communal relationships

A

relationships in which people’s primary concern is being responsive to the other person’s needs

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91
Q

Commitment

A

relationship maintenance efforts, more forgiveness

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92
Q

Positive Illusions

A

idealization of our romantic relationships and partners in order to maintain the relationship; finding redeeming factors

93
Q

Why Relationships End

A

factors of attraction, fatal attraction, social exchange (costs > rewards), loss of equity, boredom; avoidance/confrontation strategies, pain of breakup

94
Q

Attitude

A

an evaluation of an object, person or idea; negative, positive, ambivalence; affective, cognitive, and behavioural components

95
Q

Affectively based atttitude

A

an attitude based primarily on people’s emotions and feelings about the attitude object; do not result from rational examination; linked to values; positive towards social group

96
Q

Cognitively based attitudes

A

an attitude based primarily on a person’s beliefs about the properties of an attitude object; negative towards social group

97
Q

Behaviourally based attitude

A

an attitude based primarily on observations of how one behaves toward an attitude object; self-perception theory

98
Q

Explicit attitudes

A

attitudes that we consciously endorse and easily report

99
Q

Implicit Attitudes

A

attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconsious

100
Q

Theory of Planned Behaviour

A

a theory that the best predictors of a person’s planned, deliberate behaviours are the person’s attitudes towards specific behaviours, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control; there have historically been low correlations between attitudes and behaviours in empirical research; need to ask specific questions

101
Q

Cognitive Dissonance

A

a feeling of discomfort caused by the realization that one’s behaviour is inconsistent with one’s attitudes or that one holds two conflicting attitudes; causes discomfort and motivated for relief

102
Q

Festinger et al. - When Prophecy Fails

A

Doomsday was going to wipe all of humanity except for this cult that would be rescued by aliens and then sent back to earth to repopulate; there was a specific date that was set for the event
researchers joined the cult to see what would happen to the cult when the event did not take place
what to do? Most would predict that the members would quit the cult and feel foolish for believing in it

103
Q

When Prophecy Fails Results

A

the members stayed with the cult and found a new way to feel good about it; claimed that the existence of the cult saved the world; the cult leader did ‘guided writing’ and receives a message from god; feel good about saving the world and becomes more devoted
publicly speaking, more devotion

104
Q

When Prophecy Fails - Possible Cognitions

A
  1. I am a smart and reasonable person
  2. I joined a cult
  3. I joined this cult in order to escape from a great flood, be saved by aliens, and then return to re-populate the earth.
  4. The flood never happened.
  5. the aliens never came.
    there is dissonance (and therefore distortion); change attitudes so that their attitudes do not clash with behaviours and therefore do not develop a negative self-concept
105
Q

Cognitive Dissonance (According to Festinger)

A

arises out of psychological inconsistency (behaviour at odds with attitudes or self-concept); causes psychological and physiological discomfort (creates an arousal state; a drive state that motivates us to do anything we can to get rid of it)

106
Q

Methods of Dissonance reduction

A

Attitude Change (automatic, unsconscious, creates consistency, especially if attitude is unimportant)
Motivated Reasoning Bias (controlled, add new cognitions, creates consistency)
Change Behaviour

107
Q

Aronson and Mills - Attitude Change

A

how do people enjoy clubs and groups if the membership process was unpleasant?
invited female participants in an experiment; came individually and randomly assigned them to either initiated or not initiated to become a part of a group; told they were in an experiment on group discussion on the topic of sex (this is because it’s an interesting but taboo topic); in the initiation condition, the participant has to read a passage about sex out loud to test for ‘embarrassment’; in the severe condition the participant had to read aloud 12 obscene words and view porn; mild condition had to say less obscene sex words

108
Q

Aronson and Mills - Results/Cognitions

A

Cognitions: Severe
1. that discussion was very boring
2. i went through a very embarrassing initiation to get into it
Dissonance - distortion of attitude 1 (easiest to distort)
Cognitions: Mild
1. that discussion was very boring
2. i went through a mildly embarrassing initiation to get into it (no dissonance, no distortion)

109
Q

Festinger and Carlsmith - Attitude Change

A

recruited for measures of performance; have to wait for experimenter; told that the experiment takes an hour but has been scheduled for 2; intro psych students conduct interviews while waiting; asked to take place in another study that consists of two extremely boring activities
two groups: Control vs. Lie; some subjects not told to say something to the other group; some paid $1 to tell a lie to another subject and say that the expedient is interesting; some paid $20 to lie
Following the experiment, subjects were asked: How enjoyable was the study you just participated in? Would you participate in a similar study again?

110
Q

Festinger and Carlsmith - Results

A

Control group: did not enjoy the experiment and would not participate again
$20 group: a little more neutral than the control group
$1 group: found the experiment enjoyable and said they would participate again

111
Q

Festinger and Carlsmith - Possible Cognitions

A

Cognitions: $1 Group
1. that experiment was boring
2. i told the next subject that it was great fun
3. I was only paid $1 to say that
Dissonance! and therefore distortion of 1st attitude
Cognitions: $20 group
1. that experiment was boring
2. i told the next subject it was great fun
3. I did this because I was paid $20
* no dissonance; no distortion

112
Q

Motivated Reasoning Bias - Smoking Example (Cognitions)

A

Smokers:
I would like to live a healthy life into old age
I smoke
Smoking will ruin my health and perhaps even kill me
DISSONANCE! and therefore distortion of Attitude 3 (or attitude 2)

113
Q

2 Reasons why Dissonance is so uncomfortable

A

psychological discomfort due to self-esteem threat
physiological discomfort due to heightened arousal; SE threat motivates DR to restore SE, raised arousal signals threat to SE and need to engage in DR
Both types of discomfort are necessary components of dissonance theory

114
Q

Psychological Discomfort

A

we feel psychologically uncomfortable when we see ourselves acting stupidly or immorally; we feel sleazy; this harms our SE and so we engage in attitude change or motivated reasoning; if we can find another way to restore SE we do not need to engage in DR; manipulated Se (low) is associated with increased DR through attitude change; Manipulated SE (high) is associated with lack of DR through attitude change

115
Q

Goffman - Repairing Self esteem

A
  1. Make excuses - “I had no choice”
  2. Make justifications - “They paid me; it was my job!”
  3. Focus on whether our behaviour caused harm - “No one (important) was hurt!”
116
Q

Counter-attitudinal Essay

A

arguing for something that is counter to your attitude; used to induce dissonance; technical aspect of this manipulation; convincing subjects to write a strong counter-attitudinal essay; convincing subjects that they chose (or not) to write the essay; convincing subjects that writing the essay was their job (or not)

117
Q

Excuses and Justifications - Choice and Reward Example

A

Subjects write counter-attitudinal essays in favour of North Carolina law forbidding communists from speaking on college campuses (pre-tested subjects hate this law)
IVs: Excuse (Choice vs. No Choice); Justification (high vs. low reward)
DV: Attitude towards the law

118
Q

Choice and Reward Example - Results/Cognitions

A

if the reward was high, there was no real evidence towards attitude change
those with low reward and had no choice still showed no evidence of attitude change
those with low reward but had a choice showed significant evidence for attitude change
Possible Cognitions:
1. i think Communists should be allowed on campus
2. i wrote an essay, for no real reward, saying that they shouldn’t be allowed on campus
3. I chose to write this essay
* Dissonance, and therefore distortion of #1

119
Q

Harm - Magnitude of Harm Done Example

A

subjects write counter-attitudinal essays in favour of legalizing marijuana (pre-tested subjects are against legalization); the theory was that people would most likely change their attitude if they perceived harm done, that is, they convinced an undecided group to believe in something they were against
IVs: Justification (high vs. low reward); Harm done (intended audience: decided vs. undecided)
DV: agreement with marijuana should be legalized

120
Q

Magnitude of Harm Done Example - Results/Cognitions

A

High reward - no attitude change
low reward; decided audience - no attitude change
low reward; undecided audience - attitude change
Possible Cognitions:
1. I don’t think that pot should be legalized
2. i wrote an essay for no real reward, saying that pot should be legalized
3. i wrote this essay for an undecided audience
4. i might change their minds
dissonance, and there distortion of #1

121
Q

Harm - Done to Whom? Example

A

Replicate Festinger and Carlsmith
subjects are told they are going to do 4 brief experiments; told that they are randomly assigned to the order of experiments; watch what they think is a live interview with an experimenter and a subject
first task is watching the interview, which is really the manipulation of the perception of the person in the interview (total ass vs. super nice)
then the next step is the really boring peg turing task
Third task is to lie to a subject who is about to turn pegs and tell him it is really fun (you are telling the first person that was seen in an interview)
IVs: Liking for Victim (high vs. low); Harm Done (victim is convinced by lie; victim unconvinced by lie)
DV: Fourth: liking for task

122
Q

Harm Done to Whom Example - Results/Cognitions

A 
only changed attitudes if the person was liked and there was perceived harm done to him.
Possible Cognitions:
1. That experiment was boring
2. i told the next guy that it was great fun
3. i liked hm
4. he believed me
Dissonance
Possible Cognitions:
1. that experiment was boring
2. i told the next guy that it was great fun
3. he was a jerk
4. he believed me
i don’t care
123
Q

Physiological Arousal

A

acts as a red flag that SE is threatened

124
Q

Cooper et al. - Manipulated Arousal Example

A

Subjects told they are doing a short term memory task (tested on a list of non-sensical syllables)
told they are going to take a drug; all told they are going to take a placebo; manipulation of arousal
some take placebo, some take Speed, some take a tranq
then they go to a different experiment where they write a counter-attitudinal essay for the pardoning of Nixon (following the watergate scandal); manipulation of choice
fill out another anonymous survey about politics in general, and one of the questions includes a question about whether Nixon should be pardoned
then take another short term memory task
IVs: Arousal (placebo vs. low vs. high); Excuse (high vs. low choice)
DVs: Should nixon be pardoned?; Perception of choice

125
Q

Cooper et al. Results/Cognitions

A

Placebo: no arousal when there is low choice; increased attitude change with high choice
Tranq: no attitude change regardless of choice
Speed: significant attitude change regardless of choice;
those with heightened arousal had a high perception of choice (regardless of the manipulation)
Possible Cognitions:
1. I don’t think Nixon should be pardoned
2. i chose to write an essay arguing that nixon should be pardoned
3. i feel extremely agitated
Dissonance!

126
Q

Post-Decision Dissonance

A

Dissonance that is inevitably aroused after a person makes a decision; such dissonance is typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluing the rejected alternatives; increased if the decision is permanent; decision to behave immorally can influence moral value system

127
Q

Justification Effort

A

the tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain

128
Q

External justification

A

a person’s reason or explanation for dissonant behaviour that resides outside the individual (i.e. to receive a large reward or avoid severe punishment)

129
Q

Internal justification

A

the reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself (attitude or behaviour)

130
Q

Counter-attitudinal advocacy

A

the process that occurs when a person states an opinion or attitude that runs counter to his or her private belief or attitude; used to tackle social problems; induction of hypocrisy; insufficient punishment

131
Q

Rationalization Trap

A

the potential for dissonance reduction to produce a succession of self-justifications that ultimately result in a chain of stupid or immoral actions

132
Q

Self-Affirmation theory

A

a theory suggesting that people will reduce the impact of a dissonance-arousing threat to their self-concept by focusing on and affirming their competence on some dimension unrelated to the threat; boost SE, remind of morals

133
Q

Positive Self-Esteem (according to Rosenberg’s Self Esteem Scale)

A

on the whole i am satisfied with myself, i feel that i have a number of good qualities, i am able to do things as well as most other people, i take a positive attitude toward myself;

134
Q

Negative Self-Esteem (according to Rosenberg’s Self Esteem scale)

A

at times think i am no good at all, i feel o do not have mush to be proud of, i certainly feel useless at times, all in all i am inclined to feel that i am a failure.

135
Q

Individualists and SE

A

define themselves in terms of personal traits
give priority to own goals
Answers to “Who am I?”: i am outgoing, i am smart, i am funny, i am a great doctor
Self: the self is most important, but agents (family, school, peers, etc.) are only interacting, not integrated
self-esteem is extremely important

136
Q

Collectivists and SE

A

define themselves in terms of relationships with other people
give priority to group goals
Answers to “Who am I?” i am a father, i am a buddhist, i am Japanese
Self: agents are a part of the self
self esteem is not that important; do not experience SE (and maintaining strategies) the same as individualists

137
Q

3 Sources of Evidence for Self-Esteem

A

Most people have high self-esteem
Most people engage in cognitive biases to enhance or maintain their self-esteem
Most people will do whatever it takes to maintain a positive self-esteem

138
Q

Most people have a high Self-Esteem

A

like a standard deviation, but skewed higher; there are small correlations between SE and actual success, but there are large correlations between SE and self- perceived success, even larger correlation between SE and self-perceived success on SE-relevant tasks
we recognize the things that we are good at as important to us and therefore are biased

139
Q

Cognitive Biases

A

enhance and maintain SE; encoding/recall bias, definitional bias, self-serving attributional bias, positivity bias, unrealistic optimism, illusory control over good events

140
Q

Encoding/recall bias

A

preferentially forget failures and preferentially remember success

141
Q

Definitional Bias

A

definitions vary from person to person, subjective traits vs. objectively observable traits

142
Q

Self-Serving Attributional Bias

A

tendency to take more credit of things that go well than blame for things that do not; internal attributions for success, external attributions for failures

143
Q

Positivity bias

A

unrealistically positive view of self on the way you rate yourself on subjective traits; above average effect

144
Q

unrealistic optimism

A

beliefs about likelihood to get cancer, divorcing, doing well in school (that won’t happen to me; I’m doing better than most)

145
Q

Illusory control over events example

A

control over success, do not have control over failures; lottery ticket example

146
Q

Doing Whatever it takes

A

associating with winners, some successful other, boosts SE; dissociating with losers, from people who’s failures hurt SE; basking in reflected glory

147
Q

Cialdini - Arizona State U. Football

A

factors predicting association and dissociation; take a phone quiz on university and received false feedback on trivia test (success, failure, no feedback control), then asked how the team played this week (check for associative language, i.e. we vs. they)

148
Q

Cialdini - Results

A

Success condition - no difference in the use of the word ‘we’ in wins or losses
Control condition - willingness to reject the team when they lose (dissociation protects SE)
Failure condition - over associates with winning team (to boost SE) and rejects team when they lose

149
Q

Tesser’s 2 Factor Self-Esteem Model

A

how relevant the task is to our self-esteem
how close we are to the person who we are comparing to
Bask: high relevance and distant relationship; low relevance and close relationship
Don’t care: low relevance and distant relationship
Compare: high relevance and close relationship (this is where self-esteem is at stake)

150
Q

Self-Handicapping

A

sometimes we’ll even hurt ourselves to preserve our self-esteem; setting up an excuse for a failure that we think is going to happen; make it less likely to be successful, then blame the failure on the handicap, if you succeed even with the handicap, you can get a major SE boost

151
Q

Berglas and Jones - Drug Test

A

students came into lab and were tested for new drugs; took a cognitive test, take a drug, and take the test again (one ‘drug’ is a cognitive enhancer, the other is a cognitive disruptor)
either got a really hard test or really easy test, told that they did well either way; those who took the easy test understandably did well, those who took the hard test doubt that they will do well again (which would lower SE)
DV: % choosing disruptive dug

152
Q

Drug Test - Results

A

those who take the easy test rarely take the disruptor

those who take the difficult test take the disruptor (so that when they don’t do well there is no big deal)

153
Q

automatic thinking

A

thinking that is nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary, and effortless; to create shortcuts

154
Q

Schemas

A

mental structures people use to organize their knowledge about the social world around themes or subjects and that influence the information people notice, think about, and remember; process info, fill in the blanks, stereotypes; influenced by culture; understand ambiguous info; resistant to change

155
Q

accessibility

A

the extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of people’s minds and are therefore likely to be used when making judgments about the social world; past experience, related to current goal, recent experiences

156
Q

Priming

A

the process by which recent experiences increase the accessibility of a schema, trait, or concept; must be accessible and applicable, how we perceive others and our behaviour

157
Q

Self-Fulfilling prophecy

A

the case whereby people have an expectation about what another person is like, which influences how they act toward that person, which, in turn, causes that person to behave consistently with their original expectations

158
Q

Judgmental heuristics

A

mental shortcuts people use to make judgments quickly and efficiently;

159
Q

Availability Heuristic

A

a mental shortcut whereby people base a judgment on the ease with which they can bring something to mind; not always right (not typical), sometimes used on self

160
Q

Representativeness Heuristic

A

a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case

161
Q

Base rate Information

A

information about the frequency of members of different categories in the population

162
Q

Controlled Thinking

A

thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary and effortful; can be turned on or off, requires limited mental energy

163
Q

Counterfactual thinking

A

mentally changing some aspect of the past as a way of imagining what might have been; especially when you just missed something negative, regret, increases distress; not always intentional; useful if it helps people focus on way to cope better int he future, self-improvement over self-enhancement

164
Q

Thought suppression

A

the attempt to avoid thinking about something a person would prefer to forget

165
Q

Overconfidence barrier

A

the barrier that results when people have too much confidence in the accuracy of their judgments; people’s judgments are usually not as correct as they think they are

166
Q

Analytic Thinking Style

A

a type of thinking in which people focus on the properties of objects without considering their surrounding context; common in western cultures

167
Q

Holistic Thinking Style

A

a type of thinking in which people focus on the overall context, particularly the ways in which objects relate to one another; this type of thinking is common in East asian cultures

168
Q

Self-concept

A

the contents of the self; that is, our knowledge about who we are

169
Q

Self-Awareness

A

the act of thinking about ourselves; evidence in non-human species, children as young as 2; self-control is limited under stress

170
Q

Self-Schemas

A

an organized body of knowledge about the self (attitudes, preferences, traits) that influences what people notice, think about, and remember about themselves

171
Q

Self-reference effect

A

the tendency for people to remember information better if they relate it to themselves; can create memory biases

172
Q

Self-Concept clarity

A

the extent to which knowledge about the self is stable, and clearly and consistently defined

173
Q

Independent view of self

A

defining oneself in terms of one’s own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions, and not in terms of the thoughts, feelings and actions of other people

174
Q

Interdependent view of self

A

defining oneself in terms of one’s relationships to other people; recognizing that one’s behaviour is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of other people

175
Q

Introspection

A

the process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings and behaviours; not as common as we think

176
Q

Relational interdependence

A

focus more on close relationships, such as romantic partner, a friend, or child; more common for women than men

177
Q

self-awareness theory

A

the idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behaviour with their internal standards and values; self-scrutiny, aware of disparities, escapism

178
Q

outsider perspective of self

A

viewing self through the eyes of other people; collectivistic cultures

179
Q

insider perspective of self

A

focus on own private experiences without considering how other people see them; individualistic cultures

180
Q

Causal theories

A

theories about how the causes of one’s own feelings and behaviours; typically, we learn such theories from our culture; used to explain away behaviour, not always accurate, incorrect schemas lead to incorrect judgments of causes

181
Q

self-perception theory

A

the theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behaviour and the situation in which it occurs; how you really feel vs. the situation

182
Q

Intrinsic motivation

A

the desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures; increases persistence, relationships

183
Q

Extrinsic Motivation

A

the desire to engage in an activity because of the external rewards or pressures, not because we enjoy the task or find it interesting

184
Q

Over-justification Effect

A

the case whereby people view their behaviour as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which their behaviour was caused by intrinsic motivation; not always a bad thing if there is no initial interest to undermine

185
Q

Task-contingent rewards

A

rewards that are given for performing a task, regardless of how well the task is done

186
Q

Performance-contingent rewards

A

rewards that are given based on how well we perform the task; less likely to decrease interest, done without causing apprehension of evaluation

187
Q

looking-glass self

A

the idea that we see ourselves through the eyes of other people and incorporate their views into our self-concept; approving or disapproving mental audience

188
Q

Social Comparison theory

A

the idea that we learn about our abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people; when there is no objective standard and when you experience uncertainty about yourself in a particular area, similar to them in the dimension in question

189
Q

Downward social comparison

A

the process whereby we compare ourselves with people who are worse than we are in a particular trait or ability; need to view ourselves positively, boost SE, comparison to past self, only if we are not vulnerable to the other person’s negative outcomes

190
Q

Upward Social Comparison

A

the process whereby we compare ourselves with people who are better than we are in a particular trait or ability; usually threatening to SE, can be inspiring if comparing ‘usual’ self rather than ‘best’ self

191
Q

Self-Discrepancy Theory

A

the theory that we become distressed when our sense of self is discrepant from our personal standards or desired conceptions; reflected ideal (depressive symptoms) self and ought self (anxiety-related symptoms) esp. when we are self-aware; self-justifications, reassess situation

192
Q

Self-Enhancement

A

an unrealistically positive view of self; false uniqueness, above average effect; collectivists engage in self-effacement

193
Q

Self-Verification Theory

A

A theory suggesting that people have a need to seek confirmation of their self-concept, whether the self-concept is positive or negative; in some circumstances, this tendency can conflict with the desire to uphold a favourable view of oneself; do not want to interact with people who view us differently, depends on dimension being evaluated and relationship with person evaluating us

194
Q

Social Perception

A

the study of how we from impressions of other people and make inferences about them; critical in first impression making

195
Q

Non-Verbal comunication

A

the way in which people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words; nonverbal cues include facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position and movement, the use of touch, and eye gaze; not limited to humans, mimicry (may reflect empathy), mirror neurons; reflect attitudes, emotions, personality traits

196
Q

Encode

A

to express of emit nonverbal behaviour, such as smiling or petting someone on the back

197
Q

Decode

A

to interpret the meaning of the nonverbal behaviour other people express, such as deciding that a pat on the back was an expression of condescension and not kindness; evolutionary significance; happiness, sadness, fear, surprise, anger, disgust

198
Q

Affect Blend

A

a facial expression in which on part of the face registers one emotion while the other registers a different emotion

199
Q

Display Rules

A

culturally determined rules about which emotional expressions are appropriate to show

200
Q

Emblems

A

nonverbal gestures that have understood definitions within a given culture; usually have direct verbal translations, such as the okay sign

201
Q

Implicit Personality Theory

A

a type of schema people use to group various kinds of personality traits together; for example, many people believe that if someone is kind, he or she is generous as well; can lead us astray, can be culturally specific

202
Q

Attribution

A

quick decisions about why certain things have happened; make our lives simple, easy to make sense of the world around us and why; used to help understand others’ behaviours and our own behaviours and emotions

203
Q

Attribution Theory

A

a description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own behaviour and other people’s behaviour; can have consequences

204
Q

Internal Attribution

A

the inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about him or her, such as their attitude, character or personality

205
Q

External Attribution

A

the inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the situation; the assumption is that most people would respond the same way in that situation

206
Q

Covariation Model

A

a theory stating that to form an attribution about what caused a person’s behaviour, we systematically note the pattern between the presence or absence of possible causal factors and whether or not the behaviour occurs (Internal when consensus and distinctiveness are low and consistency is high; external when all high; situational when consistency is low); make inferences when missing situational data

207
Q

Consensus information

A

info about the extent to which other people behave the same way as the actor does toward the same stimulus

208
Q

Distinctiveness Information

A

info about the extent to which one particular actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli

209
Q

Consistency Information

A

info about the extent to which the behaviour between one actor and one stimulus is the same across time and circumstances

210
Q

Correspondence Bias

A

the tendency to infer that people’s behaviour corresponds to or matches their disposition; blaming the victim, situational information is not always available

211
Q

Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)

A

correspondence bias; dispositional attributions while ignoring situational factors; easy to see; has many consequences regarding impression formation and interpreting others’ knowledge

212
Q

Jones and Harris - Interpreting FAE

A

IV: condition under which Fred wrote essay:
* free choice
* no choice
* coin flip
* was provided with arguments
* copied an essay written by someone else
* read the essay aloud, but didn’t write it
DV: rating of Fred’s attitude toward Castro (negative to positive)

213
Q

Jones and Harris - Results

A

tendency to discredit the fact that Fred had no choice, even when there was no free choice participants still assumed that what he wrote reflected how he felt about Castro (internal attribution Error)

214
Q

Miller - Cross Cultural Differentiation

A

participant given stories and asked to explain why the person did what they did
dispositional is more prominent and increases in age in western culture, the same is true for situational for collectivists
based on different views of self and culture; how we learn to explain the events around us
the increase in behaviour in age suggests that these behaviours are learned

215
Q

Perceptual Salience

A

information that is the focus of people’s attention; people tend to overestimate the causal role of perceptually salient information

216
Q

Two-Step process of attribution

A

analyzing another person’s behaviour first by making an automatic internal attribution and only then thinking about possible situational reasons for their behaviour, after which one may adjust the original internal attribution (second step happens when we slow down and consciously think, are motivated to be accurate or are suspicious)

217
Q

Actor-Observer Bias

A

the tendency to see other people’s behaviour as dispositionally caused, while focusing more on the role of situational factors when explaining one’s own behaviour

218
Q

Jones and Nisbett on the Actor-Observer Bias

A

Observable across situations, but most consistently in situations that make people look bad/silly/etc. Why?
makes you feel better about yourself - downward social comparison
able to externalize and protect self-esteem if you behave badly

219
Q

Actor-Observer Bias - Mechanism

A

knowledge of the actor - we know ourselves well; if we don’t know them well we do not know their predispositions
the better we know someone the more likely we are to think situationally
point of view (perceptual) - we notice our situation; it is perceptually salient

220
Q

Nisbet et al. - Knowledge of the Actor

A

Does how well we know someone affect our likelihood of viewing them dispositionally vs. situationally?
IV: knowledge of Target (Self, best friend, acquaintance, Walter Cronkite)
DV: Rating of target on trait descriptors (% dispositional vs. % situational)

221
Q

Knowledge of the Actor - Results

A

the self was significantly more situational than the rest; increasingly more dispositional as knowledge of the actor decreases

222
Q

Lassiter and Irvine - POV

A

IV: POV (video focused on suspect/disposition, on detective/situation, or both)
DVs: Coercion (1-9), Attributions re. suspect’s behaviour
coercion increased when video focus moves away from suspect; dispositional attributions increase in this same way
Later replication DV: likelihood of guilt

223
Q

Diner & Walburn - Effects of POV on Own Behaviour

A

when we view ourselves as others do, we have a high self-awareness
IV: POV (mirror vs. no mirror)
DV: % Cheating
results; likelihood of cheating drops significantly when there is a mirror in place and thus high self-awareness

224
Q

Two-Factor Theory of Emotion (Schachter)

A

We deduce out emotional state by assessing out physiological arousal and the situation; Our assessment usually leads to correct attributions (ex. high arousal + running from bear = fear); BUT: our assessment can also lead to false attributions, thereby creating emotions we might not otherwise have had (high arousal + people laughing = joy)

225
Q

Schachter and Singer - Evidence of Two-Factor Theory

A

IVs: Arousal (placebo, epi-informed, epi-uninformed); situation (euphoria vs. anger conditions)
DV: Emotion (self report; facial expression)
Results: the placebo and epi-informed groups were not angry or euphoric in their respective conditions; but the epi-uninformed group were very angry and very euphoric

226
Q

Self-Serving Attributions

A

explanations for one’s successes that credit internal, dispositional factors and explanations for one’s failures that blame external, situational factors (when one’s SE is threatened)

227
Q

Defensive Attributions

A

explanations for behaviour that avoid feelings of vulnerability and mortality

228
Q

Belief in a Just World

A

a form of defensive attribution wherein people assume that bad things happen to bad people and that good things happen to good people; higher power, motivated to invest in future

Psych 2C03 (3 decks)

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