Final Exam 2

Question 1

What is the New Deal

Answer 1

The New Deal was a series of economic programs and reforms implemented by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) during the 1930s in response to the Great Depression, a severe economic crisis that began in 1929. The New Deal aimed to provide immediate relief to the unemployed, promote economic recovery, and reform the financial system to prevent future depressions.

FDR, who took office in 1933, pushed for a range of measures to address the dire conditions that many Americans were facing—mass unemployment, widespread poverty, and economic collapse. The New Deal fundamentally reshaped the role of the federal government in the U.S. economy and society.

Question 2

What was Reichstag Fire

Answer 2

The Reichstag Fire refers to a pivotal event in German history that occurred on February 27, 1933, when the Reichstag, the German parliament building in Berlin, was set on fire. This event played a crucial role in the rise of Nazi power and the consolidation of Adolf Hitler’s regime.

On the night of February 27, a massive fire broke out in the Reichstag building. The fire severely damaged the parliamentary chambers, and while the fire itself was quickly contained, it caused significant destruction. The cause of the fire remains disputed to this day, but its aftermath had far-reaching consequences.

Question 3

What was Nuremberg Laws

Answer 3

The Nuremberg Laws were a set of racist and anti-Semitic laws enacted in Nazi Germany in 1935. These laws were part of Adolf Hitler’s broader plan to legally and systematically discriminate against Jews and other minority groups, and they played a central role in the creation of a racially segregated society in Nazi Germany. The laws laid the foundation for the persecution of Jews that would eventually lead to the Holocaust.

The Nuremberg Laws were introduced at the Nuremberg Rally of 1935, and their formal name is the “Nuremberg Race Laws.” These laws were aimed at isolating Jews from the rest of German society and stripping them of their basic rights.

Question 4

What was Battle of Britain

Answer 4

The Battle of Britain was a pivotal air campaign fought during World War II between the German Luftwaffe (air force) and the Royal Air Force (RAF) of the United Kingdom. The battle took place between July and October 1940 and was the first major military campaign fought entirely by air forces. It was a crucial turning point in the war, as it marked the first significant defeat of Nazi Germany and prevented Hitler from gaining control of Britain, which was essential for his plans to invade the British Isles (Operation Sea Lion).

After the fall of France in June 1940, Adolf Hitler turned his attention to Britain, the last major European power still fighting the Axis powers. The German invasion of Britain was planned to be launched via sea (Operation Sea Lion), but the first step in this plan was to achieve air superiority over Britain. Hitler believed that if he could destroy the RAF and the British air defenses, he could then facilitate a successful invasion of the island.

Question 5

What was Southern Resources Area

Answer 5

The Southern Resources Area (SRA) refers to a geographic and strategic region in Australia that became significant during World War II due to its role in the country’s resource production, defense, and industrial development. The term “Southern Resources Area” is most commonly associated with the southern portion of Queensland, New South Wales, and sometimes even extends to other southern parts of Australia. The concept was particularly important in the context of wartime industrial mobilization, resource extraction, and defense strategy.

Question 6

The Southern Resources Area (SRA)

Answer 6

The Southern Resources Area (SRA) refers to a geographic and strategic region in Australia that became significant during World War II due to its role in the country’s resource production, defense, and industrial development. The term “Southern Resources Area” is most commonly associated with the southern portion of Queensland, New South Wales, and sometimes even extends to other southern parts of Australia. The concept was particularly important in the context of wartime industrial mobilization, resource extraction, and defense strategy.

Question 7

Operation Overlord

Answer 7

Operation Overlord was the codename for the Allied invasion of Nazi-occupied Western Europe during World War II, which ultimately led to the liberation of Western Europe from German control. The operation is best known for its culmination on D-Day, June 6, 1944, when Allied forces launched a massive amphibious invasion on the beaches of Normandy, France. The success of Operation Overlord was a turning point in the war, leading to the defeat of Nazi Germany and the liberation of France and much of Western Europe.

Question 8

Iron Curtain

Answer 8

The Iron Curtain was a term used to describe the political, military, and ideological barrier that separated Eastern Europe (under Soviet influence) from Western Europe (aligned with the United States and NATO) during the Cold War. The phrase symbolized the division of Europe into two hostile blocs, one communist and controlled by the Soviet Union, and the other capitalist and democratic, led by the United States and its allies. This division lasted from the end of World War II (1945) until the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991.

The term “Iron Curtain” was popularized by Winston Churchill, the British Prime Minister, in his famous speech on March 5, 1946, in Fulton, Missouri. Churchill declared that an “Iron Curtain” had descended across Europe, from Stettin (in Germany) to Trieste (in Italy), effectively dividing Europe into two spheres

Question 9

Containment

Answer 9

Containment was a foreign policy strategy adopted by the United States during the Cold War aimed at preventing the spread of communism and limiting the influence of the Soviet Union and its allies around the world. The strategy was based on the belief that communism would naturally fail if it was kept in check, and that containing its expansion would ultimately lead to its collapse or weakening.

Question 10

Nikita Khrushchev

Answer 10

was First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, and Chairman of the Council of Ministers (premier) from 1958 to 1964. During his rule, Khrushchev stunned the communist world with his denunciation of his predecessor Joseph Stalin and embarked on a policy of de-Stalinization with his key ally Anastas Mikoyan. He sponsored the early Soviet space program and enacted reforms in domestic policy. After some false starts, and a narrowly avoided nuclear war over Cuba, he conducted successful negotiations with the United States to reduce Cold War tensions.

Question 11

Fidel Castro

Answer 11

Fidel Castro (1926–2016) was a Cuban revolutionary leader and the Prime Minister (1959–1976) and President (1976–2008) of Cuba, as well as the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba for nearly five decades. He was one of the most prominent figures in the Cold War era, known for his leadership in the Cuban Revolution, his staunch opposition to U.S. imperialism, and his role in shaping Cuba into a one-party socialist state.

Question 12

SALT 1

Answer 12

SALT I (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks I) was a series of negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union aimed at curbing the growth of nuclear weapons during the Cold War. The agreement resulted in the SALT I Treaty, which was signed on May 26, 1972, by U.S. President Richard Nixon and Soviet General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev in Moscow. The treaty was a significant step in the effort to reduce the risk of nuclear conflict between the two superpowers.

Question 13

Peaceful Coexistence

Answer 13

Peaceful Coexistence was a diplomatic and ideological concept developed primarily by the Soviet Union during the Cold War, aimed at promoting peaceful relations between states with differing political systems, especially between capitalist and communist countries. The idea was that despite the ideological differences between the West (led by the United States and its allies) and the East (led by the Soviet Union), the two blocs could avoid direct military conflict and coexist peacefully, focusing on diplomatic negotiations, trade, and cooperation in some areas.

Question 14

Perestroika

Answer 14

Perestroika (Russian: “перестройка”) was a series of political and economic reforms introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union in the 1980s, aimed at restructuring the Soviet system in order to make it more efficient, transparent, and responsive to the needs of the population. The term “perestroika” translates to “restructuring” in English.

Perestroika was part of a broader effort by Gorbachev to address the economic stagnation and political corruption that had gripped the Soviet Union for decades. Gorbachev’s reform agenda also included glasnost (openness), a policy designed to encourage greater political openness and freedom of expression, and demokratizatsiya (democratization), which aimed to introduce more democratic elements into the governance of the Soviet Union.

Question 15

Triple Alliance

Answer 15

The Triple Alliance was a military alliance formed between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy in the years leading up to World War I. It was created as a counterbalance to the growing power of the Triple Entente (which included France, Russia, and Britain) and was part of a complex network of alliances that helped set the stage for the war.

Question 16

Gavrilo Princep

Answer 16

Gavrilo Princip (1894–1918) was a Bosnian Serb nationalist who is best known for assassinating Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife, Sophie, on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo, an event that directly precipitated the outbreak of World War I.

Question 17

Battle of the Somme

Answer 17

The Battle of the Somme, fought between July 1 and November 18, 1916, was one of the largest and bloodiest battles of World War I, involving the forces of the British Empire and France on one side, and Germany on the other. It took place along the Somme River in northern France and became a symbol of the horrors and high human cost of the war, particularly due to the immense casualties sustained by both sides.

Question 18

July days

Answer 18

The July Days were a series of political protests and uprisings that took place in Petrograd (now St. Petersburg) during July 1917, in the midst of the Russian February Revolution’s aftermath and the Russian Revolution’s broader unfolding. These events played a significant role in the early stages of the Russian Revolution and in the power struggle between different factions vying for control of Russia after the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the fall of the Russian Empire.

Question 19

Woodrow Wilson

Answer 19

Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924) was the 28th president of the United States, serving from 1913 to 1921. He is widely known for leading the country during World War I and for his ambitious efforts to promote a vision of international peace and democratic ideals. Wilson’s presidency is marked by significant domestic reforms, as well as his prominent role in shaping post-war international diplomacy.

Question 20

14 points

Answer 20

Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points were a set of principles outlined in a speech he delivered to the U.S. Congress on January 8, 1918, during World War I. These points became the basis for Wilson’s vision of a just and lasting peace, following the devastation of the war. Wilson’s aim was to prevent future conflicts, promote self-determination for nations, and establish an international system that would ensure long-term peace.

The Fourteen Points addressed a broad range of political, territorial, and economic issues and sought to transform the nature of international relations by promoting openness, fairness, and cooperation. Here’s a summary of the 14 Points:

Question 21

Dawes Plan

Answer 21

The Dawes Plan was an economic plan proposed in 1924 to resolve the hyperinflation crisis in Weimar Germany and stabilize its economy after World War I. The plan aimed to address Germany’s reparations payments imposed by the Treaty of Versailles (1919) and the financial turmoil caused by the burden of these payments. It was named after Charles G. Dawes, an American banker and diplomat who chaired the committee that developed the plan.

Question 22

Fascism

Answer 22

Fascism is a far-right, authoritarian political ideology characterized by dictatorial power, extreme nationalism, suppression of political opposition, centralized control of the economy, and a belief in the supremacy of the state or nation over individual rights. Fascism typically rejects liberal democracy, communism, and socialism, advocating instead for a strong, centralized government headed by a dictatorial leader, who embodies the will of the nation.

Fascism emerged in the early 20th century in Europe, notably in Italy and Germany, and became associated with the regimes of Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler, among others.

Question 23

Benito Mussolini

Answer 23

Benito Mussolini (1883–1945) was an Italian political leader and the founder of Fascism, a far-right authoritarian ideology that rose to power in Italy in the early 20th century. Mussolini became the Prime Minister of Italy in 1922, and later declared himself Duce (“Leader”) of Italy, establishing a totalitarian regime that ruled Italy until the end of World War II.

Question 24

Beer Hall Putsch

Answer 24

The Beer Hall Putsch (also known as the Munich Putsch) was a failed coup attempt by Adolf Hitler and his Nazi Party to seize power in Germany on November 8–9, 1923. The putsch took place in the city of Munich, Bavaria, and although it was unsuccessful, it was a pivotal event in Hitler’s rise to power and the history of Nazi Germany.

Question 25

Enabling Act

Answer 25

The Enabling Act (officially the Law to Remedy the Distress of the People and the Reich) was a landmark law passed by the German Reichstag on March 23, 1933, that effectively gave Adolf Hitler and his Nazi government the power to rule by decree and bypass the Weimar Constitution. This law marked the formal end of democracy in Germany and the beginning of Hitler’s dictatorship.

Question 26

Kristallnacht

Answer 26

Kristallnacht, also known as the “Night of Broken Glass”, was a violent and destructive pogrom against Jews in Nazi Germany and Austria, carried out on the night of November 9-10, 1938. It marked a significant escalation in the Nazis’ persecution of Jews, and the aftermath laid the groundwork for the Holocaust.

Question 27

Operation Barbarossa

Answer 27

Operation Barbarossa was the code name for the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II, launched on June 22, 1941. It was the largest military invasion in history, involving millions of soldiers and aimed at conquering the Soviet Union, securing its vast territory, and ultimately eliminating the Soviet state. The operation marked a crucial turning point in the war and had profound consequences for the outcome of World War II.

Question 28

Island Hopping Campaign

Answer 28

The Island Hopping Campaign was a key military strategy used by the Allied forces, primarily the United States and Australia, during World War II in the Pacific Theater. The campaign aimed to capture specific islands in the Pacific, progressively moving closer to Japan while bypassing others that were heavily fortified or less strategically important. This allowed the Allies to conserve resources and avoid costly battles, all while steadily weakening Japan’s defensive perimeter and isolating key Japanese strongholds.

Question 29

Truman Doctrine

Answer 29

The Truman Doctrine was a pivotal U.S. foreign policy announced by President Harry S. Truman on March 12, 1947. It was a response to the escalating tensions of the Cold War and aimed to contain the spread of communism by providing economic and military assistance to countries resisting communist movements. The doctrine marked a shift in U.S. foreign policy from isolationism to a more active role in global affairs, signaling the start of America’s commitment to the defense of the free world during the early years of the Cold War.

Question 30

Berlin Crisis (1948-49)

Answer 30

The Berlin Crisis of 1948-1949 was a pivotal moment in the early stages of the Cold War, marked by a standoff between the Soviet Union and the Allied powers (primarily the United States, United Kingdom, and France) over the status of Berlin, the capital of Germany, which was divided into four zones of occupation after World War II. The crisis was primarily a result of tensions over how Germany and its capital should be governed, and it escalated into a major conflict when the Soviet Union blockaded West Berlin in an attempt to force the Western Allies out of the city. The crisis ultimately resulted in the Berlin Airlift, a massive operation by the Western Allies to supply West Berlin with food and other essential goods, and it marked a significant escalation of Cold War tensions.

Question 31

Hungarian Crisis

Answer 31

The Hungarian Crisis of 1956, also known as the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, was a nationwide revolt against the Soviet-imposed communist government in Hungary and the policies of Stalinism. It was part of a series of uprisings and movements that swept Eastern Europe in the 1950s as a reaction to Soviet domination, but the Hungarian Revolution stands out due to its intensity and the Soviet Union’s decision to intervene militarily to suppress the uprising.

The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was a key event in the Cold War, reflecting the growing dissatisfaction in Soviet satellite states with Stalinist rule and the desire for greater national autonomy. While the revolution was initially successful in overthrowing the existing government, it was ultimately crushed by a large Soviet military intervention.

Question 32

Cuban missile crisis

Answer 32

The Cuban Missile Crisis (also known as the October Crisis of 1962) was a tense 13-day confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union that brought the world to the brink of nuclear war. It took place in October 1962 and was triggered by the Soviet Union’s installation of nuclear missiles in Cuba, just 90 miles off the coast of the United States. This event is widely considered one of the most dangerous moments of the Cold War, as the superpowers came closer to direct military conflict than at any other time during the Cold War.

Question 33

Brezhnev Doctrine

Answer 33

The Brezhnev Doctrine was a policy articulated by Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev in 1968 that justified the Soviet Union’s intervention in Eastern European countries to suppress anti-Soviet uprisings or movements perceived as a threat to socialist rule. The doctrine was a response to the Prague Spring of 1968 in Czechoslovakia, a period during which the Czechoslovak government, under Alexander Dubček, attempted to implement political and economic reforms that would create “socialism with a human face.” The Soviet Union viewed these reforms as a move away from strict communist orthodoxy and feared it could inspire similar movements across Eastern Europe.

Question 34

Helsinki Agreement

Answer 34

The Helsinki Agreement, formally known as the Helsinki Accords, was a major diplomatic agreement signed on August 1, 1975 in Helsinki, Finland by 35 nations, including the United States, the Soviet Union, and most of the European countries. The agreement was a significant Cold War-era effort aimed at improving relations between the Eastern and Western blocs and promoting cooperation on a range of issues, including human rights, security, and economic collaboration.

Question 35

Glasnost

Answer 35

Glasnost (meaning “openness” in Russian) was a policy introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in the mid-1980s as part of his broader efforts to reform the Soviet Union. Glasnost aimed to increase transparency, freedom of expression, and government accountability within Soviet society, while addressing the secrecy and censorship that had characterized the Communist regime for much of its history.

Glasnost became one of the central pillars of Gorbachev’s reform agenda, alongside perestroika (economic restructuring). It marked a significant departure from the policies of earlier Soviet leaders, who maintained strict control over public discourse and suppressed criticism of the government. Glasnost helped pave the way for a more open and critical public debate, contributing to the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War.

Question 36

Central Powers

Answer 36

The Central Powers was the name given to the coalition of nations that fought against the Allied Powers in World War I (1914–1918). The Central Powers were primarily composed of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria. These nations were united by a common interest in opposing the Allied powers, which included France, Britain, Russia, and later the United States and Italy (after it switched sides in 1915).

Question 37

“Blank Check”

Answer 37

The “Blank Check” refers to a diplomatic pledge of unconditional support given by Germany to Austria-Hungary in the lead-up to World War I. This agreement is often seen as a key factor in escalating the crisis following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, by a Serbian nationalist on June 28, 1914.

Question 38

Unrestricted Submarine Warfare

Answer 38

Unrestricted Submarine Warfare refers to a type of naval warfare in which submarines (or U-boats, as the German submarines were called) are used to target and sink merchant ships, passenger ships, and military vessels without warning or regard for neutral flags or civilian passengers. It became a particularly controversial and decisive tactic during World War I and World War II, especially used by Germany.

Question 39

League of Nations

Answer 39

The League of Nations was an international organization founded after World War I with the aim of ensuring lasting peace and preventing future conflicts. It was established by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, following the end of the war, and was part of U.S. President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points for peace. The League’s primary goal was to maintain world peace by encouraging disarmament, diplomacy, and cooperation among nations, while offering a platform for resolving international disputes through negotiation rather than warfare.

However, despite its noble goals, the League ultimately failed to prevent the outbreak of World War II and was replaced by the United Nations in 1945

Question 40

French Occupation of the Ruhr

Answer 40

The French Occupation of the Ruhr was a significant event in the aftermath of World War I and the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. It occurred between January 1923 and 1925 and was primarily a result of Germany’s inability to meet its reparations obligations as stipulated by the treaty. This event had a major impact on German politics, economics, and international relations and was a key moment in the interwar period.

Question 41

Stock Speculation

Answer 41

Stock speculation refers to the practice of buying and selling stocks (equities) in the financial markets with the aim of making a profit based on short-term price fluctuations rather than long-term investment in the underlying companies. Unlike traditional investing, which generally focuses on the intrinsic value and long-term growth prospects of a company, speculation is more about taking advantage of market trends, momentum, or perceived market inefficiencies.

Stock speculators often seek to profit from price movements by timing the market, betting on the direction in which a stock price will move. Speculation can be done using various strategies, including buying stocks outright, using margin trading, or leveraging more complex instruments like options or futures.

Question 42

National Socialism

Answer 42

National Socialism, often referred to as Nazism, was the ideology and political movement associated with the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP), which was led by Adolf Hitler in Germany from the early 1920s until the end of World War II in 1945. It is most commonly identified with the policies and practices of the Third Reich, the totalitarian state established under Hitler’s rule.

National Socialism combined elements of extreme nationalism, racism, anti-Semitism, totalitarianism, and militarism, and promoted the idea of an ethnically pure Aryan race. It also advocated for the centralization of power in the hands of the state and the leader, the Führer (Hitler), and the use of aggressive expansionist policies to achieve its goals.

Question 43

Paul von Hindenburg

Answer 43

Paul von Hindenburg (1847–1934) was a prominent German military officer and statesman, best known for his role in World War I and as the President of the Weimar Republic from 1925 to 1934. His tenure as president played a crucial role in the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Hindenburg’s life and career encapsulate the turbulent and transitional periods of late imperial Germany, the Weimar Republic, and the early stages of Nazi rule.

Question 44

Night of the Long Knives

Answer 44

The Night of the Long Knives (also known as the Röhm Purge) was a political purge carried out by Nazi leader Adolf Hitler and his regime between June 30 and July 2, 1934. During this event, Hitler ordered the **assassination of key political rivals, including members of the SA (Sturmabteilung), the Nazi paramilitary organization, as well as other perceived enemies within the Nazi Party and German society.

Question 45

Appeasement

Answer 45

Appeasement refers to the policy of making concessions to an aggressive power in order to avoid conflict, typically by satisfying some of the demands of that power. In the context of European diplomacy in the 1930s, the term is most often associated with the actions of Britain and France towards Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler before the outbreak of World War II. The most famous example of appeasement is the handling of Hitler’s territorial expansion, which culminated in the Munich Agreement of 1938.

Question 46

Einsatzgruppen

Answer 46

The Einsatzgruppen were mobile killing units formed by Nazi Germany during World War II as part of their systematic extermination of Jews, Roma, Communists, political opponents, and other groups deemed undesirable by the regime. These paramilitary death squads were responsible for some of the most brutal and widespread massacres of the Holocaust. They operated primarily in the occupied territories of Eastern Europe, especially after Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941.

Question 47

Tripartite Pact

Answer 47

The Tripartite Pact, also known as the Berlin Pact, was a military alliance signed on September 27, 1940, during World War II, between Nazi Germany, Italy, and Japan. This pact formed the core of the Axis Powers, the coalition that opposed the Allied Powers (primarily the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union) during the war. The pact was a significant development in the context of the escalating global conflict, as it unified the three countries under a common cause and signaled their intentions to expand their military influence and challenge the existing global order.

Question 48

Marshall Plan

Answer 48

The Marshall Plan, officially known as the European Recovery Program (ERP), was a U.S. initiative to provide economic aid to help rebuild Western European countries after the devastation of World War II. Announced by U.S. Secretary of State George C. Marshall on June 5, 1947, it was a critical part of the U.S. strategy to contain the spread of Communism in Europe and foster economic stability. The plan provided over $13 billion (approximately $150 billion in today’s terms) in aid to help Europe recover from the war, which had left much of the continent in ruins.

Question 49

Korean War

Answer 49

The Korean War (1950–1953) was a significant conflict that took place on the Korean Peninsula, primarily between the forces of North Korea (backed by the Soviet Union and China) and South Korea (backed by the United States and other United Nations members). The war was a critical episode in the Cold War and had far-reaching geopolitical implications, as it was one of the first major military confrontations between the Communist and anti-Communist blocs following World War II.

Question 50

U2 Incident

Answer 50

The U-2 Incident was a significant Cold War event that occurred on May 1, 1960, when a U.S. U-2 spy plane, piloted by Francis Gary Powers, was shot down over the Soviet Union. The incident exacerbated tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union and played a major role in derailing an important diplomatic summit between the two superpowers.

Question 51

Prague Spring

Answer 51

The Prague Spring was a period of political liberalization and reform in Czechoslovakia that took place in 1968, under the leadership of Alexander Dubček. It marked a dramatic challenge to Soviet control over Eastern Europe and the communist system in the country, leading to a tense standoff between reformists and the Soviet Union. The Prague Spring ended with a military invasion by the Warsaw Pact countries, led by the Soviet Union, which sought to crush the reform movement and restore strict Soviet-style communism.

Question 52

Détente

Answer 52

Détente refers to a period of eased tensions and improved diplomatic relations between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War, specifically from the late 1960s to the late 1970s. The term comes from the French word meaning “relaxation,” and it was characterized by efforts to reduce the risk of nuclear war, improve bilateral communication, and address key international issues without the direct military confrontation that had defined much of the Cold War up to that point.

Question 53

Mikhail Gorbachev

Answer 53

Mikhail Gorbachev was the last leader of the Soviet Union, serving as General Secretary of the Communist Party from 1985 to 1991. He is best known for his role in reforming the Soviet political system, initiating a series of economic reforms, and contributing to the end of the Cold War and the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. Gorbachev’s policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) transformed the Soviet Union and played a significant role in reshaping the global political landscape.