Final Exam Flashcards
What two elements make up one water molecule?
Hydrogen and Oxygen
What type of bond is formed between a hydrogen atom and an oxygen atom in a water molecule?
Covalent Bond
What type of bond is formed between two water molecules?
Hydrogen Bond
Why do water molecules form bonds between a hydrogen and oxygen atom?
The electrons are shared by atoms forming covalent bonds.
Name one of the two important ocean voyages during the 1800s sponsored by Great Britain. Give the name of the ship and the individual associated with the voyage.
HMS Beagle - Charles Darwin
List the four general disciplines of science that are included in the study of the oceans?
Biology
Chemistry
Geology
Physics
Name two pieces of ocean sample equipment that you have used and what did it measure
Refractometer - Salinity
Thermometer - Temperature
Cohesion
Water molecules “stick together”
Adhesion
Water molecules “stick” to other surfaces
Universal solvent
Hydrophilic compounds, such as polar solutes and ions, love water while hydrophobic ones do not
At what temperature is liquid water the densests
~ 4 degrees celcius
Define salinity
Salinity is the amount of solute dissolved in a sample of water
In what units is salinity reported?
Parts per thousand
What are the 3 constituent ions by concentration found in typical salinity seawater?
Chloride
Sodium
Sulfate
What factor has the greatest affect on seawater density?
Temperature
Is the relationship between temperature and density direct of opposite?
Opposite
Is the relationship between salinity and density direct or opposite?
Direct
Name the three factors that determine seawater density
Pressure
Salinity
Temperature
What three physical factors are represented in depth profile graphs?
Temperature
Salinity
Density
What is the shallowest depth at the top of the “clines”
200 meters
What is the deepest depth at the bottom of the “clines”
1000 meters
Define density
Density refers to the weight or how heavy something is
What units is density reported
grams/cm3
What is the photosynthesis equation?
6CO2 + 6H2O —–> C6H12O6 + 6O2
Characteristics of an active continental margin and give an example
Narrow continental margin
A lot of tectonic activity
Steep slope sometimes w/ deep offshore trenches
ex. West coast of United States
Characteristics of a passive continental margin and give an example
Wide continental margin
Gentle / gradual slope
Usually lack tectonic activity
ex. East coast of United States
What is the name of the sediment grain size scale
Wentworth Scale of Grain Size
Which specific layer of the Earth’s internal structure is the reservoir for magma?
Asthenosphere
In which of the three main marine provinces of the ocean would you find the thinnest layer of accumulated sediments?
Abyssal Plains
What is the term for an underwater avalanche of accumulated marine sediments from the shelf break down to the continental rise?
Turbidity current
What is the chemical formula for Calcium Carbonate?
CaCO3
What two types of crust make up the tectonic plate in Earth’s lithosphere?
Oceanic and Continental
What type of rock primarily makes up oceanic crust?
Basalt
What type of rock primarily makes up continental crust?
Granite
What is the density of oceanic crust?
3.0 g/cm3
What is the density of continental crust?
2.7 g/cm3
Where does a large amount of sediment accumulate on a passive continental margin?
Continental rise
What tectonic plate feature formed and continues to form the Hawaiian islands?
Lava erupting from hotspots in the crust
At what depth has particulate calcium carbonate completely dissolved into ocean water?
5000 meters
What are the three types of seismic waves?
Primary (P) Waves, Secondary (S) Waves, and Surface Waves
What is the outline of the pacific plate referred to as?
The Ring of Fire
What are two examples of physical and geological evidence that combine to support this description?
Volcanos
Earthquakes
What does the study of plate tectonics involve?
How plates interact
How plates are destroyed
How plates are formed
What is tectonics?
The large scale processes affecting the structure of the Earth’s crust
List 5 of the plates / plate groupings
North American Plate
Pacific Plate
Caribbean Plate
Australian Plate
Arabian Plate
What are the three types of plate boundaries?
Divergent
Convergent
Transform
What is a divergent plate boundary?
Where two plates move away from each other (Oceanic - Oceanic) or (Continental - Continental)
What is a convergent plate boundary?
Where two plates move towards each other; Oceanic crust is denser and go underneath the continental crust (Oceanic - Oceanic) (Continental - Oceanic) (Continental - Continental)
What is a transform boundary?
Two plates sliding horizontally past one another creating fault lines
What do seismic waves help to determine?
Location and thickness of plate
Some properties of Earth’s internal structure
What is the density of the inner core?
10.7 g/cm3
What is the density of the lower mantle?
4.5 g/cm3
What are surface waves?
The large motion waves the you feel during an earthquake
What is the lithosphere
Rigid upper mantle
Crust floats on partially molten asthenosphere
Moho Discontinuity
The boundary between the Earth’s crust and it’s mantle, identified by a distinct change in velocity of seismic waves as they pass through different densities of rock
Who was Alfred Wegener?
German meteorologist and geophysicist
Advanced the idea of mobile continents
Fitted the continents together
What was Wegener’s evidence?
Matching sequence of rocks and mountain chains on separate continents
Fossil evidence of different continents
Glacial deposits in unusual places
What did Harry Hess discuss?
The spreading of the seafloor
What are the three marine provinces?
Continental Margin
Mid Ocean Ridges
Deep Ocean Basins
What are turbidite deposits?
Sedimentary beds caused by turbidity currents
What are submarine canyons?
A deep, steep sided valley carved into the ocean floor caused by turbidity currents
What are deep sea fans?
A deep sea fan is a large, fan shaped accumulation of sediment that forms at the base of the continental slope or on the continental rise
What are the characteristics of mid-ocean ridges?
Entirely volcanic
Composed of basaltic lavas
Crest is a down-dropped rift valley
Hydrothermal vents
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Largest mountain range on Earth
Spreading center of a divergent boundary
Extends 75,000 km
1000 km average width
2.5 km above seafloor average height
Covers 23% of Earth’s surface
What are the four possible origins of particles?
Lithogenous/terrigenous
Biogenous
Hydrogenous
Cosmogenous
Where do cosmogenous particles come from?
Sediments that come from space and are a relatively minor source of ocean sediment
Where do hydrogenous particles come from?
Metal-rich particles that come from hydrothermal vents eventually sink to the seafloor in the area surrounding the seafloor
- Iron and manganese
- copper, cobalt, lead, nickel, silver, zinc
What are hydrothermal vents?
Discovered in the late 1970s, hydrothermal vents discharge heated water that does not contain oxygen but high concentrations of sulfides
Foraminifera (forams)
Calcium Carbonate shells
Coccolithophores
Phytoplankton
Mostly in subpolar regions
Made of calclum carbonate
0.003 mm hubcap shape
Radiolorians
Single cell
Among oldest protozoa
Planktonic
Silica shells
Rock formed: chert
Diatoms
Single cell
2 part silica cell walls
indicators of environmental quality
Rock formed: chert
Where do biogenous particles come from?
Largely hard parts
Calcareous (calcium carbonate)
Siliceous
Accumulation rate dependent upon rate of production and rate of decomposition
Where do lithogenous particles come from? (primarily silica)
The land through weathering and erosion
Neritic Deposits
Derived from rocks from nearby landmasses
- Coarse grained
- Accumulate rapidly on continental slope, rise, and shelf
Ex.
- Beach deposits
- Turbidite deposits
- Glacial deposits
Pelagic Deposits
Fine-grained
Accumulates slowly on ocean floor
Includes particles from volcanic ash and windblown dust
Abyssal clay
What was the first oceanographic institution
Woods Hole
What percentage of the Earth are oceans?
71%
What is the makeup up Earth’s current atmosphere?
78% Nitrogen
21% Oxygen
0.9% Argon
What is the order of the scientific method?
- Observation / Problem
- Question
- Hypothesis
- Experiment
- Data Analysis
6 Conclusion - Write-up / Peer Review
What small country sponsored many of the early ocean explorations?
Spain
The Earth’s core is comprised of what elements?
Iron and Nickel
What is the definition of accuracy?
Refers to the closeness to the known value
What is the definition of precision?
Refers to the closeness of 2 or more measurements to each other
How are sediments characterized?
Particle size
Organic composition
Redox potential
What are the ocean zones by depth?
0 - 200 meters - Epipelagic
200 - 1000 meters - Mesopelagic
1000 - 4000 meters - Bathypelagic
4000 - 6000 meters - Abyssalpelagic
6000 - 10000 meters - Hadelpelagic
How are ocean zones divided?
Depth
Light penetration
Distance from shore
What are the ocean zones by light penetration?
0 - 200 meters - Euphotic
200 - 1000 meters - Disphotic
1000 - and on - Aphotic
Name 5 types of coastal habitats in the US
Kelp forests
Rocky shorelines
Sandy beaches w/ dunes
Coral reefs
Seagrass Beds
What are the 3 most commonly used base units?
Grams
Meters
Liters
What is the environmental importance of coastal habitats?
High level of biodiversity
Important nutrient source for marine life
What is the economic / human importance of coastal habitats?
Provides job
Barriers between nations
Money (fishing etc.)
What is the region along the coast referred to as?
Neritic
What are the four sections of the continental margin?
Continental shelf
Continental slope
Continental rise
Shelf break
What type of charge do oxygen atoms have?
Negative charge
What type of charge do hydrogen atoms have?
Positive charge
What are the unique characteristics of water?
Cohesion
Adhesion
Universal solvent
High heat capacity
Expands while freezing
What is the formula for salinity?
Mass of dissolved substance / Mass of water sample
What would cause high surface salinity
Excess evaporation
What would case low surface salinity?
Precipitation that exceeds evaporation
What does the halocline refer to?
Salinity
What does the thermocline refer to?
Temperature
What does the pycnocline refer to?
Density
Is cold or warm water more dense?
Cold
Density formaula
Density = mass/ volume
What are the three major processes in the water cycle that move water to and from the atmosphere and how they effect salinity
Condensation - no direct effect
Precipitation - decrease salinity
Evaporation - increase salinity
Silica chemical formula
SiO2
What tectonic process happens at convergent boundaries?
Subduction
Is the seafloor created or destroyed at Oceanic - Oceanic convergent boundaries?
Destroyed
Is the seafloor created or destroyed at Continental - Continental convergent boundaries?
Neither
Example of a Continental - Continental convergent boundary
Himalayan mountains
Example of an Oceanic - Oceanic convergent boundary
Aleutian island arc
What tectonic process occurs at an Oceanic - Oceanic divergent boundary?
Spreading center
Is seafloor created or destroyed in divergent boundaries?
Created
Example of a Oceanic - Oceanic divergent boundary
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Example of a Continental - Continental divergent boundary
East African Rift Valley
Tectonic process that occurs at a transform boundary?
Tranform faulting
What landmark is on the West coast of South America?
Andes Mountains
What causes surface waves?
Wind
What causes internal waves?
Varying fluid density
What is the definition of wave frequency?
The number of waves to pass by a fixed point per unit of time
What is the definition of wave height?
The distance between the bottom of the trough and the top of the crest on a wave
What is the definition of wave length?
The distance between successive points on a wave like crest to crest or trough to trough
What is the definition of wave base?
The depth at which there is no more wave activity
What is the definition of the still water level?
The wave level if no waves are occuring
What is the definition of a shallow- water wave?
a wave that occurs at a depth less than or equal to the wavelength / 20
What is the definition of a deep-water wave
A wave that occurs at a depth greater than or equal to the wavelength / 2
Formula for wave speed
S = L/T
Wave period is recorded in what type of units?
Seconds
Are Tsunamis deep-water waves or shallow-water waves? why?
Shallow-water waves because they occur due to a deep underwater earthquake but have long wavelengths
What are the tides called that occur at new and full moons?
Spring Tides
What are the tides called that occur at 1st and 3rd quarter moons?
Neap Tides
Why is the tide cycle shifted 50 minutes from the previous day?
The moon orbits the Earth in the same direction that the Earth rotates so it takes the moon 50 minutes to catch up
What combined force causes the hydrosphere of the Earth to “bulge” outward?
The combined gravitational pull of the sun and the moon
Diurnal Tide
Single high and low tides
ex. Gulf of Mexico
Semidiurnal Tide
2 high tides and 2 low tides
ex. East coast of North America
Mixed Tide
A mix of both diurnal and semidiurnal with higher tides than other high tides in the same period of time
ex. West coast of United States
What is a flood tide
Rising tide
What is an ebb tide
Falling tide
How often does a high tide occur?
every 12 hours and 25 minutes
What is a wave period?
The time it takes 1 wave to pass by a fixed point
How do water particles move underneath a wave?
Circular orbitals
What three factors influence wave development?
Windspeed
Wind duration
Fetch
What are capillary waves?
The initial movement of the wave; ripples that are the farthest from the break
What are gravity waves?
As the surface water gets rougher and wind has more of an impact the wave creates more energy and breaks on the surface
What is the type of wave break that happens on a flat beach?
Spilling wave
What is the type of wave break that happens on a moderate beach?
Plunging wave
What is the type of wave break that happens on a steep beach?
Surging wave
What is the declination (tilt) of the Earth?
23.45 degrees
What are photons?
Packets of light energy
What is the Albedo?
The reflectivity of Earth material
How much solar radiation is reflected off of the Earth’s atmosphere?
~ 1/3
Where does the heat of the sun strike most directly?
The equator
What is the Coriolis effect?
Causes moving objects on Earth to follow a curved path
How does air circulate on Earth?
Using convection currents
Above the equator, in the northern hemisphere, how are things deflected?
To the right
Below the equator, in the southern hemisphere, how are things deflected
To the left
What type of atmospheric cells are from 0 degrees to 30 degrees?
Hadley Cells
What type of atmospheric cells are from 30 degrees to 60 degrees?
Ferrel Cells
What type of atmospheric cells are from 60 degrees to 90 degrees?
Polar Cells
What is the definition of weather?
Describes the conditions of the atmosphere at a given time and place; short term; days, weeks, months
What is the definition of climate?
Long term average of weather; decade, centuries
Who discovered and mapped the Gulf Stream Current?
Ben Franklin
What 4 factors affect the pattern of surface currents?
Major wind belts
Coriolis effect
seasonal changes
geometry of ocean basins
What is coastal upwelling?
The upward movement of cold, deep, nutrient-rich water to the surface
The ozone layer is located in what section of the Earth’s atmosphere?
Stratosphere
What visible light on the electromagnetic spectrum provides the greatest amount of energy?
Violet
What visible light on the electromagnetic spectrum provides the least amount of energy?
Red
What is Ekman spiral?
A rotating column of water that forms when wind moves across the ocean’s surface, causing water to move at an angle to the wind; water is deflected slightly to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and left in the Southern Hemisphere
What is Ekman transport?
The net movement of ocean surface water at a 90 degree angle to the direction of the wind, caused by the Coriolis effect, where water moves to the right of the wind in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere
